Journal of Sports and Motor Development and Learning

Abstract Aging is a crucial period in human life and it is a social necessity to pay attention to the issues and needs of this stage of life. The aim of the current study was to study the effect of Body Mass Index (BMI) on reaction time and response time of the active and inactive elderly. The research method was causal-comparative and its statistical population consisted of the elderly from Mahabad city and 60 subjects were voluntarily selected and assigned to two active and inactive groups. After determining the levels of BMI, subjects of each group were divided into three levels of low, medium and high BMI and their reaction time and response time were measured. The results of t test showed that the reaction time (P=0.000) and response time (P=0.000) of the active group were significantly shorter than the inactive group. On the other hand, the results of one-way ANOVA test (to compare the reaction time between active (P=0.623) and inactive (P=0.115) elderly at different levels of BMI) showed no significant difference. For the response time, the results of one-way ANOVA showed no significant difference among active elderly (P=0.576), but there was a statistically significant difference among the inactive elderly (P=0.000). Tukey post hoc test showed that in the inactive group, those subjects with low BMI had significantly shorter response time than the subjects with medium (P=0.001) and high (P=0.000) levels of BMI. The difference between the subjects with medium and high BMI levels (P=0.669) was not significant. The results of this study showed that those individuals with low level of BMI had shorter response time than those with higher level of BMI. Overall, BMI is an effective factor for theelderly's response time and the elderly should desirably maintain their BMI by sufficient physical activity.

Abstract There are evidences in both animal and human studies which show that exercise has beneficial effects on the central nervous system and cognition. So, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of resistance exercise on memory and probable mechanisms of this effect (i.e. neurotrophic factors) in sedentary students. 30 sedentary students (mean age, 23.8±1.6 yr) were randomly divided into two groups: control and resistance. After blood sampling and memory test, they continued their exercises for 5 weeks based on the resistance training protocol. In the end, at least 48 hours after the last training session, the memory test and blood samples were collected in order to eliminate the temporary effects of exercises. For analysis of the data, Covariance test and Pearson correlation coefficient were used (P≥0.05). Results showed that resistance exercises significantly increased memory score (P<0.05). Although BDNF significantly increased after the exercises, the exercises did not influence the expression of any neurotrophic factors (P˂0.05). Furthermore, there was no significant correlation between variations of memory scores and variations of expression of neurotrophic factors (P˂0.05). The findings indicated that exercise can improve memory.  

Abstract The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of forced physical exercise with moderate intensity on Alzheimer-induced amnesia in adult male rats. 48 male Wistar- Albino rats were randomly selected and assigned to 6 groups (n=8 per group): control, placebo (saline), drug-exercise, saline-exercise, exercise and exercise-drug. In this study, Dicyclomine (16 mg/kg) was used to induce Alzheimer-like amnesia and moderate exercise (60 minutes per day × 30 days). The rats were trained and tested using Morris water maze­. The findings showed that the group receiving Dicyclomine increased­ delay in reaching the platform­ in acquisition (P=0.044) and recall (P=0.031) compared with exercise, control and saline groups. But there were no significant differences between exercise and exercise-saline groups compared with exercise-Dicyclomine group. Also, a significant difference (delay in reaching the platform) was observed between Dicyclomine-exercise, saline-exercise compared with Dicyclomine in acquisition (P=0.005) and recall (P=0.002). In conclusion, this study showed that memory and learning in the acquisition and recall phases were destroyed by Dicyclomine and 30 sessions of moderate-intensity running (forced) could prevent memory corruption.

Abstract   Dyad training is a method in which pair groups participate in learning motor skills and it seems that it could be characterized as an optimal instructional environment through enhancing effectiveness and efficiency of training conditions. The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of dyad training on learning front crawl swimming. Twenty 7-10-year-old boys were assigned to two groups of dyad and individual training (each group 10 subjects). After receiving instructions and observing the perfect skill, subjects were paired; one half entered the water to perform the required skill and the other half stayed outside and like a coach gave his partner a feedback on his performance after observing his trial. After some trials, they exchanged their roles. However, after receiving instructions and observing the perfect model, all children in individual group entered the water and simultaneously performed the required skill. In the retention test, each child’s 10 m swimming was filmed and these clips were evaluated by 2 federation coaches using front crawl swimming checklist. The inter class correlation coefficient was 0.90. The results of retention test showed a significant difference between dyad and individual groups (P<0.05). So it can be concluded that dyad training method is not only economical in terms of energy consumption and instructional environment but also more effective compared with the traditional swimming instruction methods.

Abstract The aim of this study was to compare the effect of time courses of interference and retention test on implicit motor memory consolidation. 60 right-handed female students who had cognitive, mental and physical health and novice at performing alternating serial reaction time task (ASRTT) and serial color matching task (SCMT) (mean age=21.95+1.95 years) were randomly divided into three groups of interference with distances of 6, 24 and 72 hours after the practice session. In the acquisition phase, all groups practiced the ASRTT in 25 blocks of 80 trials in one day. Then, they participated in the second interference task (SCMT) 6, 24 and 72 hours after the practice session and participated in the retention test 24 hours later. In the acquisition phase, subjects’ performance improved with an increase in the practice trials and they had better performance in the 5th practice block (P<0.001). In retention test, there was no significant difference between mean reaction time in the 5th practice block and retention test of the first group (interference with the 6 hours distance). There was a significant difference between mean reaction time in the 5th practice block and retention test of the second group (interference with the 24 hours distance) and the third group (interference with 72 hours distance). The third group (interference of 72 hours distance) had the best performance while the first group (interference with the 6 hours distance) had the weakest performance. Therefore, the interference distances of 24 and 72 hours after the acquisition session led to memory consolidation.

Abstract Self-controlled feedback is a kind of augmented feedback which is represented by the request of learner. The aim of the present study was to compare self–control and instructor-control feedbacks after good and poor trials on acquisition and learning of a throwing task in children with cerebral palsy. 60 children with cerebral palsy (age range: 7-12 years old) were selected by convenience sampling method from special schools in Tehran city. Participants were randomly divided into three groups: instructor-control feedback after good trials, instructor-control feedback after poor trials, and self-control feedback. At the end of the acquisition phase, participants of self–control group were divided into 2 groups (self–control feedback after good trials and self–control feedback after poor trails). One-way ANOVA test and Tukey post hoc test were used at (P<0.05). In the acquisition phase, no significant differences were observed among the groups (P=0.64). But self-control feedback group after good trials outperformed all groups in retention (P=0.001) and transfer (P=0.001) phases. In instructor-control condition, among those participants receiving feedback after good trials and in feedback received after poor trials condition, self-control subjects showed more progress. Thus, due to the low capacity of information processing in children, motivational role of feedback in self-control condition and after good trials leads to their better learning.

Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of colors and gender on the Coincidence anticipation timing task. Therefore 60 participants aged 8 to 10 years randomly into two groups (30 males and 30 females) participated and timing error was recorded by a coincidence-anticipation apparatus. For data analysis independent t-test,ANOVA and Tukey post hoc tests were used at the significant level of 0/05. Findings suggested no significant difference between boys and girls in coincidence anticipation timing task (p=0/289) and the lowest timing error in a blue background and also significant difference timing errors were observed between the blue background, with other color (P=0/001 and F(2,59)=22/17). The results of this study indicate that gender does not affect on the Coincidence anticipation timing task and the performance in background color blue can reduce timing errors in predicting the spatial and temporal stimuli. In genral the results of this study indicated that gender didn,t affect the Coincidence anticipation timing task and the blue background color would facilitate the performance and effectiveon reduce errors timing in stimuli predicting spatially and temporally.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of colors and gender on the Coincidence anticipation timing task. Therefore 60 participants aged 8 to 10 years randomly into two groups (30 males and 30 females) participated and timing error was recorded by a coincidence-anticipation apparatus.

Abstract Self-talk is one of the psychological factors influencing the improvement and success of motor performance. The present research aimed to investigate the effect of motivational self-talk on bimanual coordination of university students. 24 students of physical education (12 females and 12 males, mean age = 22.62 and SD = 2.081) were selected by convenience sampling method. After the pretest, subjects were divided into two homogeneous groups of motivational self-talk and no self-talk using bimanual coordination tester. For data analysis, descriptive and inferential statistics including independent t test and paired t test were used at 0.05 significance level. Results showed that self-talk improved the coordination performance significantly (p < 0.05). Also, the female group had a significantly better precision in bimanual coordination (p < 0.05) and the male group had a significantly better speed in bimanual coordination (p < 0.05). But, there was a significant difference between boys and girls in self-talk group in the posttest (p < 0.05). According to these findings, it is suggested that motivational self-talk should be used to improve and promote bimanual coordination performance.

Abstract Defects such as spasm, concurrent muscle activity, muscle weakness, and range of motion affect the fine and fine motor function of children with cerebral palsy and lead to movement limitations. Despite the potential of using virtual reality in the rehabilitation of children with cerebral palsy, few studies have been conducted in this area.The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of movement practices in virtual reality environment on range of motion in cerebral palsy children. Twenty children 7-12 years old with cerebral palsy were selected by a convenience sampling method. Participants were homogeneously placed in experimental and control groups based on the average scores. The experimental group performed bowling practice in virtual environment for 3 weeks, but the control group continued their traditional therapy program. Xbox device and universal goniometer were used as instruments. Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) and Analyze of Covariance (ANCOVA) were used at p < 0.05 level. Based on MACNOVA test results, there was a significant difference between experimental and control groups at least in one dependent variable (shoulder, elbow, & wrist range of motion) (F = 96/43, p= 0/001). Based on the results of ANCOVA test, experimental group achieved higher averages in shoulder, elbow and wrist range of motion than control group. Virtual reality technology can be used as a treatment approach for improving upper extremity range of motion in children with hemiplegic cerebral Palsy.

Abstract Introduction: The present study aimed to determine the effect of imagining the play strategies in comparison with imagining the motor skills on performance during a sports competition course.
Methods: Participants were 30 (19 men, 11 women) karatekas who were evaluated as upper than moderate in terms of performance level. In the beginning, participants' ability and past experiments in motor imagery were assessed. Then, they took part in a quasi-experimental design of one of three strategic imagery, movement imagery, or control groups. Each person immediately after combatting with an opponent performed the required action depending on the group and finally competed against the same previous opponent, again.
Results: The results showed that karatekas had excellent imagery ability, especially in preserving the temporal characteristics of the movement, and at the past competitions, specifically before their matches, they had used both cognitive-general and cognitive-specific imagery. Also, the nonparametric analysis demonstrated that in the quasi-experimental design, the strategic imagery group gained a higher point difference during the post-test, however, the movement imagery or control group did not differ significantly.
Conclusion: The research findings revealed that strategic imagery has more advantages compared to skill imagery, suggesting that strategies of play can be used between the matches as an effective factor in sports success.

Abstract Contextual Interference is defined as interference in performance and learning that arise from practicing one task in the context of other tasks. Transitional practice is a kind of practice sequence that starts out with trials of large blocks; then moves to smaller random blocks, and eventually finishes with complete randomization. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of ‘transitional practice schedule’ on contextual interference in learning three badminton skills. The research was quasi-experimental with three experimental groups. The subjects were 30 female students of physical education (age: 19±1.3) from Urmia University who voluntarily participated in the study. They practiced three badminton skills (long service, forehand toss and backhand toss strokes) for ten sessions. In each session, each subject practiced 15 trials for each skill and totally 45 trials. The blocked group practiced in a blocked format. The random group practiced all three skills randomly in a way that no two similar skills would be repeated one after the other in each sequence. The transitional practice group practiced the first three sessions in a blocked format, the next three sessions with five random trials, the next three sessions with three random trials and the last session in an entirely random format. The groups' performances were recorded in each session. After the ten sessions, the immediate retention test and after 48 hours with no practice, the delayed retention test was conducted. The data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance with repeated measures (ANOVA). The results showed that in the acquisition stage, group differences were not significant (p=0.48), but the mutual reaction (practice sessions x groups) was significant (p=0.001). In immediate retention test, only the difference between the block and random groups was significant (p=0.005) and the blocked group performed better than the random group. In delayed retention test, both random and transitional groups performed significantly better than the block group (p=0.001). Transitional group performed better than the random group and this difference was significant (p=0.043).

Abstract Relaxation is one of the important mental skills in physical education and sports
activities. Relationship between relaxation and rhythmic exercises with an
emphasis on flexibility-functional mechanisms of nervous system has received
attention in recent studies. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect
of rhythmic exercises on deepening the relaxation of national judo athletes. For
this purpose, 30 male athletes of judo national team participated in this study and
were divided into three groups: one control and two experimental groups. The
subjects practiced the training protocol for three months and the data were
recorded and then analyzed by SCL (Skin Conduct Level) index. The results
revealed no significant difference in relaxation among the groups (α=%5 and
P>0.05). In other words, relaxation exercises had a slight effect on improvement of
relaxation skill level; however, rhythmic exercises deepened relaxation to some
extent. Results showed that rhythmic movements reduced stress through influencing
relaxation deepening and subjects with more relaxation were more successful in
their optimal movements.

Abstract There is no doubt that augmented feedback has an important role in improving
learning. However, it is the content of the feedback which is challenging. The aim
of the present study was to examine the effect of feedback on successful versus
unsuccessful trials on simple and complex tracking tasks. For this purpose, 48
undergraduate right-handed male and female students of Hakim Sabzevari Teacher
Training University (mean age = 23+1.8 yr) were selected from those students who
had taken general physical education course and were randomly divided into four
groups (N=12) of feedback on successful and unsuccessful trials in simple and
complex tasks. The tracking task was designed in two levels (simple and complex)
in a computer software format to be performed by the participants with maximum
speed and the lowest number of errors. During the acquisition phase, participants
performed 7 blocks of 6 trials in 8 days and they received feedback on two trials.
The method of research was quasi–experimental and ANOVA for multiple factors,
analysis of variance with repeated measures and Bonferroni post hoc test (P˂0.05)
were used for data analysis. The results showed that in the acquisition test, the
main effects of trial days and task complexity (in movement time) were significant.
These factors did not significantly influence movement error and their interaction.
In immediate retention test, the effects of the type of task and feedback (in
movement time) were significant while these factors did not significantly influence
movement error and their interaction. In delayed retention test, the effect of the
type of task was significant in movement time and movement error. The types of
feedback and task were significant in transfer test (in movement time) and these
factors and their interactions were not significant in movement error. The results
suggested that the types of feedback and task can be regarded as effective
independent factors in learning. The types of feedback and task were more effective
for movement time.

Abstract   The aim of this study was to compare the effects of random and blocked practices with respect to the changes in generalized motor program (GMP) and parameter on acquisition, retention and transfer of table tennis service. For this purpose, 32 subjects were randomly assigned to four groups (8 subjects each group). In the first two groups, GMP changed with blocked and random arrangements while in the last two groups, parameter changed with those arrangements. After pretest, participants completed 300 trials in each task (totally 900 trials) and then they participated in posttest, retention and two transfer tests with different aims. The data were analyzed by two-way ANOVA and ANOVA with repeated measures (P˂0.05) and Bonferroni post hoc test was used to mark the differences of the groups. The findings showed that despite the type of changes, the random practice caused better performance than blocked practice and these advantages of random practice in GMP changes were greater.  However, these effects not only were observed in the same situation but also were maintained in other contexts. In addition, these effects not only influenced performance but also caused the participants to perform the tasks with more efficiency, more cognitive effort and less attention.  

Abstract Introduction: This research aimed to investigate the effect of physical training and selective and compulsory observational pattern on the intrinsic motivation and cognitive learning of basketball jump shot skill with the approach of basic psychological demands.
Methods: Eighty male students (18-22 years old) were selected voluntarily and based on their pre-test scores, were randomly divided into four Self-Control, Paired, Experimenter-Control, and Control groups (20 people in each group). To examine the motivation level, the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI), and to examine the cognitive learning level, Recall Questionnaire (adapted from Knudson, 1993) was used. An educational video of the expert model that showed the movement components was presented to the participants. A retention test was conducted 24 hours later. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine the data (p≥0.05).
Results: The results showed that in the acquisition phase, the level of intrinsic motivation of the participants to learn the basketball jump shot skill in the Self-Control observation condition was significantly higher than the participants in the Paired and Control conditions. Also, in the retention phase, the level of intrinsic motivation in the Self-Control observation condition was significantly higher than in other experimental conditions. In addition, in the acquisition and retention phases of cognitive learning (recall success), the participants in the Self-Control observation condition scored significantly higher than the participants in the Paired and Control conditions.
Conclusion: In general, the results of this study show that motivation affects learning. Also, task demonstration as a whole-part-whole is an effective and efficient method in the cognitive phase.

Abstract Introduction: The present study aimed to develop a model of the relationship between trait anxiety and the components of attentional styles in athlete students.
Methods: The current research strategy was descriptive and correlational, with the approach of developing a correlational model. In three stages, the attentional styles questionnaire was translated into Persian and was evaluated psychometrically. Its process consisted of the French version translation into Persian, re-translation into French, and the final translation. In this study, 245 athletes were selected conveniently from the student population of Shahid Beheshti University. Participants completed attentional styles and trait anxiety questionnaires. Data were analyzed using Confirmatory Factor Analysis, Cronbach's alpha coefficient, and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM).
Results: Cronbach's alpha coefficient for two factors of top-down and bottom-up attention was 0.70 and 0.72, respectively. The confirmatory factor analysis results showed that the factor loadings of five items (items 2 and 4 of the top-down attention factor, and items 3, 8, and 9 of the bottom-up attention factor) were less than 0.4, so they were removed. SEM results showed that trait anxiety has an inverse and significant relationship with top-down attention and a direct and significant relationship with bottom-up attention.
Conclusion: The results of the present study highlighted the importance and necessity of paying attention to the relationship between trait anxiety and the components of attentional styles in athletes. Therefore, in planning training programs and improving sports performance, taking this relationship into account can be an effective step in preventing adverse outcomes in sports competitions.

Abstract Introduction: The present study aimed to investigate the effect of a course of Taekwondo goal-oriented physical exercises on the cognitive functions of children with learning disorders.
Methods: In this quasi-experimental study, which was conducted with a pre-test-post-test control group design, 20 boys with learning disorders were selected from the centers for learning disabilities by referring to special education in Mashhad. In the pre-test stage, the participants' working memory and inhibition were measured by N-back and Stroop tests, respectively. After that, the exercise group participated in the selected Taekwondo exercise program for three 50-minute sessions per week for four weeks. In each session, a set of My Brain cognitive games was used before the implementation of the exercise protocol. In the first 10 minutes of the session, cognitive games were played, then 10 minutes of warming up, 30 minutes of teaching and practicing Taekwondo techniques, and finally 10 minutes of cooling down were conducted. During this period, the control group did their usual activities. Finally, the dependent variables were measured again in the post-test phase. Repeated measures analysis of variance test was used for statistical analysis.
 Results: Taekwondo goal-oriented physical exercises improved cognitive functions in the Exercise group; All these changes were significant compared to the control group (P<0.05).
Conclusion: Taekwondo goal-oriented physical exercises can be effective as an intervention to improve the cognitive functions of this group of children.

Abstract Cognitive constrain of individual constrains which can be created with imagery and is a factor in many tasks affecting the performance has been investigated. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of PETTLEP imagery on the accuracy and speed basketball pass skill. 44 female students of Faculty of Physical Education, University of Tehran (mean age of 22.45±2.3 years) were selected by convenience sampling method and participated in this study. In pretest, participants performed 2 blocks of 10 trials of accuracy and speed basketball pass. Then, they were assigned to one of the four groups homogeneously: accuracy pass PETTLEP imagery, speed pass PETTLEP imagery, accuracy control, and speed control. Two groups of imagery listened to the imagery audio during 3 days for 8 minutes per day. Then, subjects participated in posttest, retention and transfer tests. For data analysis, mixed ANOVA was used. In case of significance, independent t test was used for intergroup comparisons and analysis of variance with repeated measures was used for within-group comparisons with significance level of α=0.05. The results of analysis of variance indicated no significant differences between imagery and control groups in pretest. However, there were significant differences in posttest, retention and transfer tests between imagery and control groups (P≤0.05). Also, PETTLEP imagery of accuracy and speed pass improved accuracy and speed pass performance from pretest to retention test; however, there was no such process in transfer test (P≥0.05).

Abstract Children in preschool are at an optimal time for the development of gross and fine motor skills. Visual-motor integration is an important perceptual-motor skill that children need to acquire in order to function successfully before formal schooling commences. In this study were investigated the effect of three motor intervention programs (gross, fine, & gross-fine)on visual-motor integration in 80 children who presented below average VMI skills scores. From these participants three experimental (n=60)and a control group (n=20)were randomly selected. The experimental groups participated in a 12 week intervention program of three 45 minutes sessions per week. The Beery-Buktenica developmental test of visual-motor integration 6th edition was used to measure the participants VMI skills. Mixed ANOVA with repeated measures and LSD post hoc test was used to analyze effects of motor intervention programs 

Abstract The aim of the present study was to study the relationship of motive for health and vitality and enjoyment with the level of adherence of female participants to sport for all (Karaj city). The research method was descriptive-correlation and survey and all women (N=650) participating in sport for all in Karaj city in 2016 formed the statistical population of this study. 243 subjects were selected as the sample according to Morgan table. Hong Yong Lin (2010) international sport participation questionnaire and Scanlan (1993) sport commitment questionnaire were used to collect data after their validity and reliability were determined. The results showed a positive and significant relationship between vitality and enjoyment (correlation coefficient R=0.376) as the first priority and motive for health (correlation coefficient R=0.216) as the second priority and adherence. Therefore, given these findings on the effect of sport for all on vitality, enjoyment and physical and mental health, especially in women as one of the pillars of social health, it is recommended that authorities should pay more attention to the priorities of vitality and enjoyment and provide more facilities for them.

Abstract The aim of this study was to investigate national jump roping plan on static and dynamic balance of students. In this study, pretest and posttest were used with two experimental and control groups for male students of fourth grade of elementary school in 2011-2012 in Baharestan city (a region in Robat Karim, Tehran). For this purpose, 60 students were selected from students of fourth grade of elementary schools in Baharestan city using multistage sampling method and were equally divided into two groups. Experimental group implemented the selected jump roping program 3 sessions a week (each session 50 min.) for 10 weeks. K–S test was used to check data normality. Independent and dependent t tests were used to analyze the data (P˂0.05). The results indicated a significant improvement in the experimental group for both static (P=0.019) and dynamic (P=0.005) balance tests. Also, the mean score of dynamic balance posttest was significantly more in the experimental group than control group (P=0.041) but such difference was not observed in the result of static balance test between the two groups (P=0.225). Based on these results, jump roping plan improved the balance of students. So this study considered the jump roping plan to be useful at schools.

Abstract This study aimed at exploring the main sources of acute stress in wrestlers
regarding the structure and the assessment of reliability and validity of the sources
of acute stress in wrestlers questionnaire (SASWQ). For this purpose, this
questionnaire was distributed among a sample of 330 wrestlers (mean age
21.56+5.3) in Tehran who were selected by multistage random sampling method.
Analysis of data with SPSS software showed that the Cronbach's alpha for all items
of this questionnaire was 0.909 and alpha coefficient of the internal consistency for
the first and second section was 0.870 and 0.831 respectively. Content validity of
the questionnaire showed the equity of each of the 8 principle components of acute
stress in wrestlers including skill performance, evaluation, contest, error, prospect,
time pressure, injury and environment as 2.43 on average through exploratory
factor analysis in the principle component analysis (PCA) with Varimax rotation.
In confirmatory factor analysis with Lisrel software, GFI=0.96, AGFI=0.92 and
CFI=0.93 were obtained. The findings showed that SASWQ had acceptable
reliability and validity and could measure the mentioned variable in the mentioned
statistical population.

Abstract The present study aimed at investigating the effect of rich environment at
home on the speed of acquisition progress in football dribbling skill of boys.
The statistical population included children aged between 6 and 13 in district
1, Tehran city. The present study was semi-experimental with pretestposttest
design. Based on the results of the distributed questionnaires, 30
subjects were selected as the sample and were divided into two groups: rich
and non-rich. Firstly, both groups participated in football dribbling test as the
pretest. Then, both rich and non-rich groups received training for 9 days and
one session per day. At the end of each training session, both groups
completed football dribbling test again. To compare the groups, the 2 × 9
mixed analysis of covariance was used, and dependent t test was applied to
examine intragroup changes. Wilks Lambda index indicated that the effect of
environment on the speed of learning progress was significant
(F(9&19)=3.27), P<0.014, correlation ratio=0.608). The rich group had a
higher speed of learning progress than the non-rich group. The comparison
of the training days of both groups showed that the rich group was
significantly better than the non-rich group for all days except for day 4. The
results of dependent t test showed a significant difference between pretest
and day 9 in rich (P<0.001) and non-rich (P<0.001) groups. Overall, these
results show that enriched home environment significantly improves the
speed of learning progress.

Abstract  
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of selected spark exercises on balance and coordination in autistic children. This study was semi-experimental. 12 autistic children (mean age 5-12 years) participated in this study. The subjects performed the intervention for 3 months based on selected spark exercises. The participants were evaluated in 3 stages (baseline, pretest and posttest) by Bruininks-Oseretsky test in terms of motor skills. Friedman test was used to analyze repeated measures of nonparametric data. The results showed that selected spark exercises significantly improved dynamic balance (P<0.001) and bilateral coordination (P<0.001). It can be generally stated that these selected spark exercises have a positive effect on the improvement of motor deficiencies in autistic children.  

Abstract The term autistic refers to the individuals who have a set of development disorders relevant to the central nervous system. These children are known to have deficiency in social interaction, language and communication. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between motor development and social development of 6-10-year-old autistic children of Mashhad city. The statistical sample involved 41 students with high–functioning autism (31 boys and 10 girls). The researcher calculated the students' social development scores using SCQ questionnaire. Using Lincoln-Oseretsky Motor Development Scale, the level of motor development was determined. In descriptive section, mean and standard deviation were used and in inferential section, Pearson correlation coefficient was applied with 95% confidence level. The results showed a significant relationship between students' motor development and their social development (P<0.05). Also, there was a significant relationship between the boys' gross motor skills, fine motor skills, hand-eye coordination and their social development (P<0.05). The girls' fine motor skills and hand-eye coordination were significantly related to their social development (P<0.05), but there was no significant relationship between the agility of fingers and social development in both groups (P>0.05). These results of the relationship between motor development and social development showed that motor skills can affect the improvement of autistic students.