Motor Development and Learning
Narges Abdoli; Aireza Saberi Kakhki; Hamid Reza Taheri Torbati; Majid Ghoshuni
Abstract
Introduction: There is a contradiction in previous studies about the changes in brain waves as a result of learning. The present research was conducted to compare the power of the Mu rhythm in expert and novice golf players.
Methods: 15 novice students with any experience in golf skills participated ...
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Introduction: There is a contradiction in previous studies about the changes in brain waves as a result of learning. The present research was conducted to compare the power of the Mu rhythm in expert and novice golf players.
Methods: 15 novice students with any experience in golf skills participated in the novice group and 15 experienced golf players in the expert group. The brain waves of participants were recorded while performing 20 trials of golf putting task. Data were processed using the ICA method. For the statistical analysis of the data, a 2×3 (group × area) one-way MANOVA was used.
Results: The results showed that the power of the Mu rhythm in the three central regions (C3, Cz, C4) of the brain of novice and expert golf players has a significant difference (P ≥ 0.05), so the average rhythm power of the expert group was higher than the novice group.
Conclusion: The findings show that the brain function of expert and novice golfers is different. It seems that during the motor learning process of golf putting, the brain undergoes functional changes, and these changes are probably one of the reasons for the better control and execution of skills in expert golfers. The findings highlight the necessity of paying attention to the learning process in improving the control and execution of motor skills. The present study helps experts in training and rehabilitating motor skills to understand the cognitive, neuro-motor processes underlying the execution of actions and skills.
Roya Mahdipour; Mahdi Namazizadeh; Rokhsareh Badami; Hamid Mirhosseini
Abstract
Introduction: The purpose of the current study was to examine the simultaneous effect of the transcranial direct current stimulation (tDSC) and observational learning on learning of basketball free throw. Methods: In semi-experimental study with repeated measure design, 30 novice female students ...
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Introduction: The purpose of the current study was to examine the simultaneous effect of the transcranial direct current stimulation (tDSC) and observational learning on learning of basketball free throw. Methods: In semi-experimental study with repeated measure design, 30 novice female students in free basketball throw accessibly selected and randomly located in 2 tDCS with model observation and artificial stimulation with model observation groups. In pre test phase, participants throw 15 trials basketball free throw. Intervention phase done in 5 consecutive days that each day electrical stimulation of the brain was performed from the motor cortex (C3 anode & Fp2 anode), and artificial stimulation with model observation, and then participants performed 15 free basketball throws. In last session post test phase executed. One week and 21 days after post test phase respectively executed short term and long term retention phase. Data analyzed with ANOVA with repeated measure statistical method.Results: The result indicated that tDCS with model observation (F= 22.327, sig =0.0001, η2 =0,615) and artificial stimulation with model observation (F= 3.044, sig =0.023, η2 =0,179) significantly improved basketball free throw. Other results indicated that tDCS with model observation than artificial stimulation with model observation cause improvement basketball free throw in post test (p=0.002), short term test (p=0.002) and long term test (p=0.001). Conclusion: Overall, the results of the current study indicated that tDCS with model observation can be effective as a new training method in addition to model observation to improve basketball free throw skills.
Jalil Mirzaee; Rasool Zeidabadi; Mohammad Reza Shahabi Kaseb
Abstract
Mental fatigue is a psychological state caused by prolonged periods of cognitive activity and decreases physical performance, but its impact on motor learning has been less studied. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of self-controlled feedback on learning to produce low, medium and ...
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Mental fatigue is a psychological state caused by prolonged periods of cognitive activity and decreases physical performance, but its impact on motor learning has been less studied. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of self-controlled feedback on learning to produce low, medium and maximum forces in mental fatigue condition. Participants consisted of 28 eligible volunteers who were randomly divided into two groups of self-controlled feedback and yoked. Electrical dynamometer, Stroop test, multidimensional fatigue inventory and the VAS scale were used in this study. Both groups firstly performed the Stroop test for one hour under mental fatigue protocol and they entered the acquisition phase of force production task after making sure that mental fatigue was created. Immediate and delayed retention tests were performed 10 minutes and 48 hours after the end of the acquisition phase respectively. Findings showed that in mental fatigue condition, there was no significant difference between self-controlled feedback and yoked groups in acquisition and retention of different forces. Also, the error produced in learning the medium force was less than those in learning the low and maximum forces in the mental fatigue condition, that is to say the learning of the medium force was significantly better than the low force. The results showed that mental fatigue reduces the effectiveness of self-controlled feedback and destroys learning to produce low and maximum forces more than medium force.
Ameneh Honarmand; Shila Safavi
Abstract
The use of attention instructions type is one of the most important variables in the process of motor skill learning. The aim of this study was to examine the combined effects of attention instruction type feedback, and autonomy on children's motor learning. For this purpose thirty-six children (M±SD ...
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The use of attention instructions type is one of the most important variables in the process of motor skill learning. The aim of this study was to examine the combined effects of attention instruction type feedback, and autonomy on children's motor learning. For this purpose thirty-six children (M±SD 7.05 ± 0.45 years) were asked to perform a bowling task with their dominant hand. They divided into 3 groups (external focus, the internal focus of attention, and control). Participants in the acquisition phase practiced tasks in a counterbalanced order based on feedback and choice (Autonomy) conditions and after 24 hours they take part in retention test without feedback and instructional attention and autonomy .The acquisition phase in each condition(1-without feedback and autonomy,2-with feedback,3- with autonomy,4-with feedback, and autonomy). The data were analyzed by ANOVA and ANCOVA. The results of the retention phase showed that the type of attention focus without feedback and autonomy had a greater bowling accuracy and the external focus of attention with autonomy was better than other conditions. The present study did not show the beneficial effects of attention instruction type feedback, and autonomy on children's motor learning.The results showed that motor learning in children was different from adults.Based on our results in children external attention focus and feedback with autonomy have not similar effects with adult motor learning.
Roya Mahdipour; Mahdi Namazizadeh; Rokhsareh Badami; Hamid Mirhosseini
Abstract
The aim of the current study was to compare the effects of the transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of vision and motor cortex on learning of basketball free throw skill. In this semi-experimental study with repeated measure research design, 45 female students novice at basketball free throw ...
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The aim of the current study was to compare the effects of the transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of vision and motor cortex on learning of basketball free throw skill. In this semi-experimental study with repeated measure research design, 45 female students novice at basketball free throw were selected by purposive sampling method and randomly assigned to three groups (each group 15 subjects): tDCS on vision cortex, tDCS on motor cortex and artificial stimulation. In pretest phase, participants had 15 basketball free throws. Intervention phase was performed in 6 consecutive days; firstly, electrical stimulation of the brain was daily performed from the motor cortex (C3 anode and Fp2 cathode), the visual cortex (Oz anode and Cz cathode) and artificial stimulation, and then participants performed 15 free basketball throws. In last session, posttest phase was carried out. One week and 21 days after the posttest phase, short-term and long-term retention phase was performed. Data were analyzed with mixed ANOVA. The results indicated that tDCS on motor cortex (F=16.908, sig=0.0001, η2 =0.547) and vision cortex (F=7.41, sig=0.001, η2=0.346) improved basketball free throw. Other results indicated that tDCS on motor cortex improved basketball free throw more than tDCS on vision cortex (p < 0.05). Overall, the results of the current study indicated that tDCS on motor cortex can be effective as a new training method in addition to physical training to improve basketball free throw skill.
Aliyeh Miri Ardakol; Mohammadreza Shahabi Kaseb; Rasool Zeidabadi
Abstract
Retention is one of the important indicators for inference of learning motor skill. There are some disagreements on the retention measurement concept among experts and researchers of the motor learning area. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to analyze the qualitative content of retention measurement ...
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Retention is one of the important indicators for inference of learning motor skill. There are some disagreements on the retention measurement concept among experts and researchers of the motor learning area. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to analyze the qualitative content of retention measurement concept in motor skills in Persian scientific research articles between 2009 and 2019. The present study was developmental with a quality content analysis method. 143 articles of Persian scientific research journals were studied, which mentioned the concept of retention. Data were analyzed with Nvivo10 software. Results revealed that there were 47 subsidiary topics and 6 main topics for the retention measurement concept including measurement method of retention concept, number and duration of trials in retention test, number and duration of trials in the acquisition phase, number of warm-up decrement trials, task type and detraining length. Also, the results indicated that there was no agreement among experts about the measurement method of retention concept and its related issues. This topic not only can confuse researchers on how to measure the retention concept in motor behavior area, but also can limit the possibility of comparing different research results and thus makes it hard to decide on optimal practice solutions and methods. Therefore, it is necessary to make specific decisions in this regard by holding symposiums with the participation of experts in the field of motor behavior.
Valiollah Kashani; Mansoreh Azari; Ahmad Nikravan
Abstract
The special skill is highly specific skill embedded within a more general class of skills or, as a dictionary definition would suggest, an exception to the rule. The present study attempted to investigate the emergence of especial skill in shooting with air gun at two skill levels (skilled, novice). ...
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The special skill is highly specific skill embedded within a more general class of skills or, as a dictionary definition would suggest, an exception to the rule. The present study attempted to investigate the emergence of especial skill in shooting with air gun at two skill levels (skilled, novice). The population studied here included all male and female shooters from the city of Semnan. The study was conducted on a sample of 40 shooters, consisting of two groups of women with the mean age of M= 21.33 and two groups of men with the mean age of M= 23.44, who performed shooting with air gun at five distances (8, 9, 10, 11, 12 meters) from the target. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, tables, and figures) as well as inferential statistics (regression and one-way analysis of variance). Simple linear regression with the significance level P
Hamid Salehi; Somayeh Shahdousti; Mehdi Rafaei Boroujeni; Maryam Nezakatalhosaini
Abstract
To create more efficient learning environments, the learner’s role and his/her influence on the learning process should be considered. The aim of this study was to determine the way self-controlled practice affected performance and learning of motor patterns. 60 female undergraduate students (mean ...
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To create more efficient learning environments, the learner’s role and his/her influence on the learning process should be considered. The aim of this study was to determine the way self-controlled practice affected performance and learning of motor patterns. 60 female undergraduate students (mean age = 20.73 yr., SD = 2.98) were randomly assigned to four groups that ordered self-controlled practice or three yoked-to-self-controlled. In the acquisition phase, the self-controlled group was told they could choose whichever of three motor patterns they wanted before they practiced each trial. Each self-controlled participant’s practice schedule was served as the predetermined practice schedule for each corresponding participant in the yoked control groups. The yoked control participants practiced the tasks with high, low, or no (classic yoked-control) variability. The results showed that the self-controlled group performed the tasks faster than the other yoked control groups in both the acquisition phase and the retention tests. The findings suggest that if the learners are allowed to choose the sequence of practice in multiple motor skills, this would have facilitating effects on their performance and motor learning.
Mojtaba Jalalvand; Abbas Bahram; Afkham Daneshfar; Saeed Arsham
Abstract
Aim: This study aimed to determine effect of self-control of task difficulty on accurate and movement pattern golf putting. Methodology: Thirty novice undergraduate students (14 Female and 16 male; average age 21.1 ± 1.64 years) were quasi-randomly assigned to two groups. Before performing each ...
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Aim: This study aimed to determine effect of self-control of task difficulty on accurate and movement pattern golf putting. Methodology: Thirty novice undergraduate students (14 Female and 16 male; average age 21.1 ± 1.64 years) were quasi-randomly assigned to two groups. Before performing each trial during the acquisition phase, the self-control group was told they could choose any of the pre-set distances from the target: (25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175 and, 200 cm). Each self-control participant’s practice schedule was served as the predetermined practice schedule for each corresponding yoked participant. Participants practiced eight blocks of 10 trials. To analyze the radial error (in acquisition and tests phases) and the movement pattern score (in tests) mixed variance analysis with repeated measures on the last factor was used. The movement pattern score in acquisition phase was analyzed using t test. Results: Based on the results, radial errors across different groups in the acquisition phase did not vary, but the radial error of the self-control group in retention, single task transfer and dual-task transfer tests was lower compared to the yoked group (ps < 0.001). In acquisition and test phases, the golf putting movement pattern was better than that of yoked group (ps < 0.001). Conclusion: The efficacy of self-control of task difficulty is explained with reference to the challenge point framework.
Shila Safavi; Maryam Nezakatolhosayne; Elham Abedi
Abstract
A match of the students' traits and teaching and training styles of sport skills has received researchers' attention. The aim of the present study was to investigate the interaction of physical self-concept and coach-oriented and self-regulated training styles in acquisition, retention and transfer ...
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A match of the students' traits and teaching and training styles of sport skills has received researchers' attention. The aim of the present study was to investigate the interaction of physical self-concept and coach-oriented and self-regulated training styles in acquisition, retention and transfer of volleyball serve of collegiate female students. 50 female students (age: 18-25) were assigned to high and low physical self-concept groups. Then, each group was divided into coach-oriented and self-regulated styles. Participants exercised the criterion task for 6 weeks, 4 sessions per week in their special training condition. AAHPERD test and Physical Self-Concept Questionnaire were used for data collection. Acquisition tests were administered every week while retention and transfer tests were administered 3 days after the last training session and one hour after the retention test respectively. The data were analyzed by ANOVA with repeated measures and ANOVA. Results showed that the high self-concept group practicing the task with self-regulated style showed the best performance in acquisition, retention and transfer phases. The other groups showed similar performances. Results clearly showed that participants with high physical self-concept who exercised volleyball serve skill with self-regulated style had the highest skill acquisition and learning.
Farnaz Torabi; Pegah Rajabpour
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate blocked, random, gradual incremental and gradual decremental practice schedules on the acquisition and retention of different types of basketball pass (overhead, hand chest , single arm with dominate hand) in 8-10-year-old girls. For this purpose, 60 female students ...
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The aim of this study was to evaluate blocked, random, gradual incremental and gradual decremental practice schedules on the acquisition and retention of different types of basketball pass (overhead, hand chest , single arm with dominate hand) in 8-10-year-old girls. For this purpose, 60 female students of second, third and fourth grade of elementary school were voluntarily selected and randomly divided into 4 groups: blocked, random, gradual incremental and gradual decremental. After a pretest for each skill, the acquisition phase began including 5 practice sessions and 81 trials each session. The blocked group practiced 27 consecutive trials for each skill per session. The random group randomly practiced three intended skills per session. The gradual incremental group practiced the first 27 trials by blocked schedule, the second 27 trials by serial schedule and the third 27 trials by random schedule each session. The gradual decremental group practiced the first 27 trials by random schedule, the second 27 trials by serial schedule and the third 27 trials by blocked schedule each session. Participants conducted 405 trials at the end of the practice protocol. After the fifth practice session, acquisition test was carried out and retention test was taken 3 days later. The results showed no significant differences in the means between the acquisition and retention tests and these practices with different levels of interference did not have any drastic effects on different phases of learning (P>0.05).
Maryam Lotfi; Jalal Dehghanizade; Fateme Sadat Hosseini
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of focus of attention on learning dart throwing in mentally retarded children.In this quasi-experimental study, 22 mentally retarded boys (age 10-12 years old) were randomly selected according to IQ (50-70) and were assigned to two homogenous attention ...
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The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of focus of attention on learning dart throwing in mentally retarded children.In this quasi-experimental study, 22 mentally retarded boys (age 10-12 years old) were randomly selected according to IQ (50-70) and were assigned to two homogenous attention (internal, external) groups after the pretest and a training session according to the obtained scores, age and IQ. The subjects practiced in 5 blocks and each block 8 throws. Two-way analysis of variance with repeated measures and ANOVA were used to analyze data. In retention phase, both groups increased accuracy in their throwing (P=0.044). Variability (P=0.044) and throwing accuracy (P=0.047) decreased due to the training. In transfer phase, internal focus group could not transfer skill to new conditions while variable group succeeded to transfer their skill to new conditions. Also, external focus group had lower variability (P=0.049) and higher accuracy (P=0.048) than internal focus group. According to the findings, external focus group was able to retain and transfer skills to new situations which confirmed constrained action hypothesis (Wulf et al., 2001) in mentally retarded individuals.
Zahra Estiri; Elaheh Arab Ameri; Rasoul Hamayat Talab; Mahmoud Shiekh; Elaheh Hejazi; Roza Rahavi; Ali Chashmi
Abstract
There is no doubt that augmented feedback has an important role in improvinglearning. However, it is the content of the feedback which is challenging. The aimof the present study was to examine the effect of feedback on successful versusunsuccessful trials on simple and complex tracking tasks. For this ...
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There is no doubt that augmented feedback has an important role in improvinglearning. However, it is the content of the feedback which is challenging. The aimof the present study was to examine the effect of feedback on successful versusunsuccessful trials on simple and complex tracking tasks. For this purpose, 48undergraduate right-handed male and female students of Hakim Sabzevari TeacherTraining University (mean age = 23+1.8 yr) were selected from those students whohad taken general physical education course and were randomly divided into fourgroups (N=12) of feedback on successful and unsuccessful trials in simple andcomplex tasks. The tracking task was designed in two levels (simple and complex)in a computer software format to be performed by the participants with maximumspeed and the lowest number of errors. During the acquisition phase, participantsperformed 7 blocks of 6 trials in 8 days and they received feedback on two trials.The method of research was quasi–experimental and ANOVA for multiple factors,analysis of variance with repeated measures and Bonferroni post hoc test (P˂0.05)were used for data analysis. The results showed that in the acquisition test, themain effects of trial days and task complexity (in movement time) were significant.These factors did not significantly influence movement error and their interaction.In immediate retention test, the effects of the type of task and feedback (inmovement time) were significant while these factors did not significantly influencemovement error and their interaction. In delayed retention test, the effect of thetype of task was significant in movement time and movement error. The types offeedback and task were significant in transfer test (in movement time) and thesefactors and their interactions were not significant in movement error. The resultssuggested that the types of feedback and task can be regarded as effectiveindependent factors in learning. The types of feedback and task were more effectivefor movement time.
