Journal of Sports and Motor Development and Learning

Abstract Introduction: The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of different cognitive conditions in dyad trainings on the improvement and stability of executive functions (working memory, response inhibition) of table tennis players. ‎

Methods: In a semi-experimental study with a pre-test-post-test and retention design, 24 boys (mean age 15.03±0.076) were selected through convenience sampling from boys' schools in yasouj city and randomly assigned to two groups: high cognitive load and low cognitive load. Both groups performed dyad trainings for 6 sessions with their respective cognitive engagement levels. Each session consisted of 20 repetitions (3 minutes) with a 1-minute rest period between repetitions. The participants' working memory and response inhibition were measured by the n-back and go/no go tests in the pre-test, post-test, and retention stages, respectively. Data were analyzed using a mixed model analysis of variance (ANOVA) test.

Results: The results showed that both high and low cognitive load groups had a significant effect from pre-test to retention on working memory (P<0.05), and the high cognitive load group performed better than the low cognitive load group. Neither group showed a significant effect on response inhibition (P > 0.05).

Conclusion: In general, the results of the present study indicate that dyad trainings with high cognitive load provide the possibility of improving the working memory of table tennis players.

Abstract Introduction: This research investigates the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation, in one or more sessions, on the executive functions of novice tennis players.
Methods: 27 novice male tennis players (mean age 20.29 ± 0.29) were randomly and double-blindly divided into three groups: experimental group 1 (5 sessions of anodal stimulation), experimental group 2 (1 session of anodal stimulation), and control group (no anodal stimulation). Stimulation was applied for 20 minutes at an intensity of 2 mA in the M1 and DLPFC regions. Indicators of selective attention, working memory, response inhibition and cognitive flexibility were measured before (pre-test), after 5 sessions (post-test) and 2 weeks after the intervention (retention). For statistical analysis, a repeated measures ANOVA test (3x3 factorial design) was used.
Results: The results showed that there was no significant difference between the intervention groups in the indicators of selective attention and working memory in any of the evaluation stages (P> 0.05). However, experimental group 1 showed a more significant improvement in response inhibition (p= 0.018) and cognitive flexibility (p= 0.14) indices in the retention test compared to the control group, while no significant difference was observed between the other groups (P> 0.05). Both experimental groups showed significant improvement in all indicators in the post-test and retention. Notably, experimental group 1 showed a significant improvement in all indicators from post-test to retention (P<0.05).
Conclusion: In conclusion, both single-session and multi-session tDCS enhance executive functions in novice tennis players, with repeated stimulation yielding more durable cognitive benefits.

Abstract Introduction: The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of transcranial stimulation of different brain areas on the working memory and attention of the elderly. ‎
Methods: The present study is a quasi-experimental study with a pretest-posttest design. The statistical population of the present study included elderly people aged 60-70 years in Mashhad. For this purpose, 72 people were selected using the available and purposive sampling method and after obtaining written consent, they were randomly assigned to one of six groups: cerebellar tDCS stimulation and cerebellar sham, dorsolateral prefrontal tDCS stimulation and dorsolateral prefrontal sham, primary motor cortex tDCS stimulation and primary motor cortex sham. The tools used in this study were the Cambridge Neuropsychological Assessment Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) scale and the tDCS device. The pretest of the working memory and attention scale was taken from the subjects. Then, stimulation was performed in the aforementioned areas for 2 weeks, 5 times a week, and for 20 minutes. After the intervention, the posttest of the working memory and attention scale was taken from the subjects again. The data was analyzed using the statistical method of analysis of covariance.
Results: The results of this study showed that there was a significant difference between the effects of tDCS stimulation conditions on the working memory and attention of the elderly; this difference was in favor of the cerebellar tDCS group (sig=0.001).

Abstract Introduction: Executive functions are among the most important cognitive abilities related to goal-directed behavior, self-regulation, and learning in childhood and play a decisive role in students' academic success and daily performance. Given this, empirical evidence regarding the effect of motor skills interventions on various components of executive functions in Iranian children is limited. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effectiveness of a motor skills intervention course on the executive functions of 10- to 12-year-old male and female students.
Research Method: This study was quasi-experimental and was conducted on two experimental and control groups using a pretest-posttest design. Motor skills training intervention was implemented for 7 weeks for the experimental group. The statistical sample consisted of 40 male and female students aged 10 to 12 years who were randomly divided into two experimental and control groups using convenience sampling method, and data collection was done using the Wechsler Intelligence Test, Color Flanker Test, and Stop Sign Test
Findings: Covariance analysis results It showed that the motor skills intervention had a significant effect on the executive functions, information processing, and attention deficit of students, but there was no significant difference between girls and boys in terms of the extent of this effect or in any of the dependent variables.

Conclusion: This study showed that the training program with the method presented in this study is effective on the

Abstract Introduction: Executive functions are a vital indicator of athletic success, and one of the interventions that can influence them is Quadrato motor meditation. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of these trainings at the behavioral level on the executive function of semi-skilled athletes
Methods: One hundred semi-skilled female athletes aged 15 to 18 years were selected via convenience sampling from shooters in Yazd province and randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. Each component of executive function was assessed in separate sessions. The Quadrato motor meditation intervention was performed for 28 days, six minutes per day. The post-test was then administered following the same protocol as the pre-test. Data were analyzed using multivariate and univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) in SPSS software, with a significance level set at p<0.05.
Results: The findings showed that Quadrato motor trainings were effective in increasing scores in interference and asymmetries of response from the response inhibition dimension, the two subcategories, and persistence from the cognitive flexibility dimension, and also in improving performance in the working memory dimension during the post-test phase. These improvements amounted to 12.6% in response inhibition, 21.6% in working memory, and 18% in cognitive flexibility.
Conclusion: The results of this study are consistent with structural and functional brain research. Quadrato motor meditation training had a positive effect on the three core components of executive function at the behavioral level and could serve as an appropriate intervention to enhance executive functioning in athletes.

Abstract Introduction: The present study aimed to investigate the effect of a course of Taekwondo goal-oriented physical exercises on the cognitive functions of children with learning disorders.
Methods: In this quasi-experimental study, which was conducted with a pre-test-post-test control group design, 20 boys with learning disorders were selected from the centers for learning disabilities by referring to special education in Mashhad. In the pre-test stage, the participants' working memory and inhibition were measured by N-back and Stroop tests, respectively. After that, the exercise group participated in the selected Taekwondo exercise program for three 50-minute sessions per week for four weeks. In each session, a set of My Brain cognitive games was used before the implementation of the exercise protocol. In the first 10 minutes of the session, cognitive games were played, then 10 minutes of warming up, 30 minutes of teaching and practicing Taekwondo techniques, and finally 10 minutes of cooling down were conducted. During this period, the control group did their usual activities. Finally, the dependent variables were measured again in the post-test phase. Repeated measures analysis of variance test was used for statistical analysis.
 Results: Taekwondo goal-oriented physical exercises improved cognitive functions in the Exercise group; All these changes were significant compared to the control group (P<0.05).
Conclusion: Taekwondo goal-oriented physical exercises can be effective as an intervention to improve the cognitive functions of this group of children.

Abstract Introduction: Athletes in team sports must make many decisions when perceiving and interpreting available environmental information regarding the position of the ball,teammates, and opposing players while taking appropriate actions. Considering the nature of volleyball and the need to pay attention to multiple stimuli during training and matches, a high capacity for cognitive abilities such as working memory seems essential. This research aimed to compare the effectiveness of spatial and numerical working memory of skilled and semi-skilled volleyball players following decision-making exercises.
Methods: sixty female volleyball players, 30 of them for the semi-skilled group (15 people for each of the training and control groups) and 30 for the skilled group (15 people for each of the training and control groups) with the age range of 19-25 years were selected according to purposive sampling method. The protocol of decision-making exercises was carried out for 18 sessions and three blocks of 20-trial exercises were performed according to the training instructions for each group. The working memory capacity test was used to evaluate working memory. To test the hypothesis, due to the normal distribution of the data, the between- and within-groups factorial analysis of variance (mixed model) was used.
Results: The results of the analysis at the significance level of α = 0.05 showed that there is a significant difference between the training groups, and the decision-making group got the highest score. The decision-making exercises at the semi-skilled level of proficiency compared to the skill level has a significant improvement in the spatial working memory variable.
Conclusion: The result shows that exercises with high cognitive load can be a necessity to ncrease spatial working memory in semi-skilled female volleyball players.

Abstract The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on working memory in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). The research method was quasi-experimental with pretest and posttest and retention with experimental and control groups. The research population consisted of children (age: 7-11 years old) in Urmia city in 2018. 16 children with DCD were selected as the sample with convenience sampling method and based on inclusion and exclusion criteria, and then were randomly divided into two groups: experimental (n=8) and control (n=8). The experimental group received 10 sessions (each session 10 minutes) of tDCS on f₄ and f₃ brain zones with 0.75 mA circuitry. The control group received 10 sessions of sham circuitry for 20 seconds, then the circuity was cut off, but they were not informed of this sham circuity. The data of working memory were collected using N-BACK test. The analysis of variance with repeated measurements was used to test the research hypothesis (P=0.05). The results showed that transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) had a significant effect on the enhancement of working memory and the effect would continue to the retention phase (P=0.05). This approach can be used to improve working memory in children with DCD.