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  • Journal of Sports and Motor Development and Learning is published by the Faculty of Sports Sciences and Health, Unive... moreedit
A match of the students' traits and teaching and training styles of sport skills has received researchers' attention. The aim of the present study was to investigate the interaction of physical self-concept and coach-oriented and... more
A match of the students' traits and teaching and training styles of sport skills has received researchers' attention. The aim of the present study was to investigate the interaction of physical self-concept and coach-oriented and self-regulated training styles in acquisition, retention and transfer of volleyball serve of collegiate female students. 50 female students (age: 18-25) were assigned to high and low physical self-concept groups. Then, each group was divided into coach-oriented and self-regulated styles. Participants exercised the criterion task for 6 weeks, 4 sessions per week in their special training condition. AAHPERD test and Physical Self-Concept Questionnaire were used for data collection. Acquisition tests were administered every week while retention and transfer tests were administered 3 days after the last training session and one hour after the retention test respectively. The data were analyzed by ANOVA with repeated measures and ANOVA. Results showed that the high self-concept group practicing the task with self-regulated style showed the best performance in acquisition, retention and transfer phases. The other groups showed similar performances. Results clearly showed that participants with high physical self-concept who exercised volleyball serve skill with self-regulated style had the highest skill acquisition and learning.
The aim of the present study was to determine the effects of the number of training sessions in a week on psychological factors and memory of sedentary elderly. For this purpose, 45 sedentary male elderly (mean age, 73.15±6.54 years;... more
The aim of the present study was to determine the effects of the number of training sessions in a week on psychological factors and memory of sedentary elderly. For this purpose, 45 sedentary male elderly (mean age, 73.15±6.54 years; height, 166.5±3.10 cm; weight, 64.45±4.06 kg; body mass index (BMI), 23.49±1.51 kg/m2) were voluntarily selected and divided into two training groups and one control group with their own desire. The 8-week training program in two-session group consisted of running with intensity of 40-55% of maximum heart rate for 2 sessions a week. Subjects in four-session group used a training program with similar intensity of two-session group for 4 sessions a week. Depression, anxiety, happiness and memory status were measured using the Beck Depression, Beck Anxiety, Oxford Happiness and Wechsler Memory tests. Data were analyzed using paired t test and one-way ANOVA (P<0.05). The results showed a significant improvement in psychological factors and memory in experimental groups compared with the control group (P<0.05). Subjects who had practiced four sessions a week showed more improvement in depression, anxiety, happiness and some memory factors. Generally, both training programs had useful adaptation and increased number of training sessions has more influence in the improvement of psychological factors and memory in the elderly.
The aim of this study was to determine the psychometric properties and to normalize Persian version of the Self Talk Questionnaire. 384 male and female athletes in three skill levels and 10 sport fields (team and individual) were selected... more
The aim of this study was to determine the psychometric properties and to normalize Persian version of the Self Talk Questionnaire. 384 male and female athletes in three skill levels and 10 sport fields (team and individual) were selected and completed the Persian version of the Self Talk Questionnaire. At first, face validity of this questionnaire was confirmed with translation-back translation method. For construct validity, internal constancy and temporal stability, confirmatory factor analysis, Cronbach alpha coefficient and intra-class correlation coefficient were used respectively. The results showed acceptable fit of the 11-item model of Self Talk Questionnaire; fit index (RMSEA, 0.07; CFI, 0.98 & TLI, 0.97), internal consistency (motivational, 0.70; cognitive, 0.70 & total, 0.73) and temporal stability (motivational, 0.89; cognitive, 0.92 & total, 0.89) showed good reliability and validity of the Persian version of this questionnaire. These findings indicated good validity and reliability for the Persian version of Self Talk Questionnaire. Therefore, the Persian version of Self Talk Questionnaire can be employed as a suitable tool to study and evaluate self talk of Iranian male and female athletes.
Perceptual-motor skills play a vital role in many tasks of daily life and sports skills. The measurement of coincidence anticipation timing ability is a method to evaluate perceptual and perceptual-motor skills. Thus, the main aim of the... more
Perceptual-motor skills play a vital role in many tasks of daily life and sports skills. The measurement of coincidence anticipation timing ability is a method to evaluate perceptual and perceptual-motor skills. Thus, the main aim of the present study was to investigate the role of different organism, task and environment constraints in coincidence anticipation timing accuracy. For this purpose, 30 female adolescents (17-15 years old), young (20-40 years old) and elderly (60-80 years old) participated in 4 tests of coincidence anticipation timing. The tests included a coincidence anticipation timing task with green (1), blue (2), red (3) color background and an additional environment constraint (4) and participants had to coincide with the arrival of the stimulus in the target point and press the corresponding key. For data analysis, mixed ANOVA (3*4), 4 one-way ANOVA and 3 ANOVA with repeated measures were used for each group with adjusted Bonferroni. Statistical analysis showed a significant difference in test 1, 3 and 4 (P≤0.0125). Also, all groups showed a significant reduction in performance when the background color changed from green to red and the addition of the secondary task (P≤0.017). In addition, results indicated that the elderly group had the weakest performance compared with the adolescent and young groups and the reason might be a weakness in perceptual-motor systems related to age increase. Finally, different coincidence anticipation training programs were recommended for athletes, elderly and patients with perceptual-motor system weakness.
The aim of this study was to determine the validity and reliability of the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (BPNES). The method was descriptive-survey. The Statistical population consisted of male and female athletes aged over... more
The aim of this study was to determine the validity and reliability of the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (BPNES). The method was descriptive-survey. The Statistical population consisted of male and female athletes aged over 16 years who attended structured exercise programs. The sample consisted of 256 male and female athletes (M=23.03, SD=4.04) who were selected through cluster random sampling method. The 12-item Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale was initially translated (by translation - back translation method) and then its face and content validity were confirmed. After a pilot study and necessary modifications, confirmatoryfactoranalysis (CFA) was used to examine construct validity. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was used for internal consistency of the scale and temporal reliability of the items. Intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) was examined by test-retest method with 2-4 weeks of interval for the scale and subscales. The results showed that the second model of BPNES had acceptable fit indexes (CFI=0.98, RMSEA=0.07), internal consistency (alpha coefficient: 0.87 for relatedness, 0.80 for competence, 0.82 for autonomy, and 0.88 for the whole questionnaire) and temporal reliability (0.88 for relatedness, 0.83 for competence, 0.83 for autonomy, and 0.90 for the whole questionnaire). So, this scale can be used for research population in Iran.
This study aimed at examining the effect of local games on motor development and aggressive behavior in preschool children. In a semi-experimental study, 40 children (6 years old) were selected randomly from preschools in Ahwaz city.... more
This study aimed at examining the effect of local games on motor development and aggressive behavior in preschool children. In a semi-experimental study, 40 children (6 years old) were selected randomly from preschools in Ahwaz city. Pretest was conducted using Ulrich Gross Motor Skills test and Aggression Scale. Based on their pretest scores, subjects were divided into two equal groups: local games and preschool common activities. Local games group participated in local games program for 8 weeks, 3 sessions per week while the other group had their preschool common activities. Then, all subjects participated in a posttest. After ensuring normal data distribution using Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, paired and independent t tests were used for intergroup and intra-group comparisons. Paired t test analysis showed the significant effect of both programs on motor development and reduction in aggression in preschool children. But intergroup comparison showed the advantage of local games over the preschool common activities (P=0.001). It is suggested that preschools should use local games to enhance motor development and to reduce aggressive behaviors in children.
Decision making plays an important role in sport activities and is directly associated with sporting success or failure. On the other hand, one of the key issues in psychology of sports and behavioral sciences is sport orientation. The... more
Decision making plays an important role in sport activities and is directly associated with sporting success or failure. On the other hand, one of the key issues in psychology of sports and behavioral sciences is sport orientation. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship of action and state orientation with decision making behavior of expert female football players. 27 players who attended competitions for at least 8 years participated in the present study. Action Control Scale (ACS-90) was used to specify action or state orientation of players. Then, to evaluate the performance of decision making of players, the images of real football situations were used. The players were required to respond correctly to one of the existing options (shooting, dribbling, passing). K-S test was applied to examine normal data distribution and multiple regression and Pearson correlation coefficient were used to analyze data at significance level of 0.05. Results showed a significance correlation between action orientation and accuracy and decision making behavior of action players (P<0.05); however, this correlation was not significant between action orientation and speed of decision making (P>0.05). Moreover, results indicated no significant relationships between state orientation and variables (accuracy, speed and decision making behavior) of state players (P>0.05). Finally, it can be inferred that action orientation in expert players has a correlation with accuracy in decision making and risk taking choices and it can facilitate reaching their goals.
Motivation is one of those factors affecting the success and quality of athletic performance. However, limited research has been conducted on the motivational traits of Iranian athletes. This study aimed at describing the motivational... more
Motivation is one of those factors affecting the success and quality of athletic performance. However, limited research has been conducted on the motivational traits of Iranian athletes. This study aimed at describing the motivational traits of skilled and novice athletes of team and individual sports in some selected sports fields. Players of national teams of the individual sports of karate, taekwondo, fencing, badminton, sailing and team sports of basketball, volleyball, Dragon boat, handball and futsal were purposively selected as the population of skilled athletes and 60 athletes were randomly selected from all above selected sports fields from some selected provinces as the sample of novice athletes. Data from the Sport Attitudes Inventory (SAI) were classified according to team and individual sports and players were classified according to novice and skilled levels and data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Inferential statistical results of ANOVA showed that competitive motivation was significantly higher in skilled and novice athletes of individual sports than team sports and it was higher in skilled athletes than novice athletes (P<0.05).
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of different sport fields, different training levels and their interactive effects on indicators of growth and sexual maturation of adolescent female athletes. The population consisted... more
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of different sport fields, different training levels and their interactive effects on indicators of growth and sexual maturation of adolescent female athletes. The population consisted of all adolescent female athletes (aged 17-9) in gymnastics, volleyball and table tennis in Arak city and the sample included 49 gymnasts, 82 volleyball players and 38 table tennis players who were selected by multistage cluster sampling method. The data were collected by a demographic questionnaire, the physical activity questionnaire for adolescent (PAQ-A), the Tanner Table and bioelectric resistance method. To analyze the data, covariance analysis at (P≤0.05) was used. The findings showed that different sport fields had significant effects on indicators of height, leg length and fat (P˂0.05). Different training levels had significant effects on indicators of fat (P≤0.05). The interactive effect of different sport fields and different training levels had no significant effects on indicators of growth and sexual maturation (P≥0.05). It was concluded that athletes enter these three sport fields when their growth characteristics are proportional to the needs of that field. Also, maximum 10 hours of exercise training per week have no adverse effects on indicators of growth and sexual maturation of athletes.
The aim of the current study was to investigate the effect of Paaryaad training program on the development of motor skills of children aged between 6 and 8 who suffered from high function autism (HFA). For this purpose, 30 girls with HFA... more
The aim of the current study was to investigate the effect of Paaryaad training program on the development of motor skills of children aged between 6 and 8 who suffered from high function autism (HFA). For this purpose, 30 girls with HFA (mean age 7.1 ± 0.6 yr) were randomly selected from special schools of Sanandaj city. Then, according to the pretest scores, were assigned to control and experimental groups. Pretest and posttest scores were measured by Bruininks-Oseretsky test. Motor intervention program included 16 sessions of Paaryaad training. The K-S test was used to determine data distribution and Levin and ANCOVA tests were used to compare means. The results showed that Paaryaad training program affected significantly the development of the subscales of running speed and agility, balance, bilateral coordination and strength (P<0.05). But, the effect of this training program on the subscales of response speed, visual- motor control and upper limb speed and dexterity was not significant (P>0.05). According to these results, it could be argued that this training program may improve the fundamental skills of children with HFA.
The aim ofthe current study wasto comparegeneral health and mood state profile in bodybuilders with/without anabolic steroid consumption. Thestatistical populationconsisted of all bodybuilders in Tehran city in 2015. 200 bodybuilders were... more
The aim ofthe current study wasto comparegeneral health and mood state profile in bodybuilders with/without anabolic steroid consumption. Thestatistical populationconsisted of all bodybuilders in Tehran city in 2015. 200 bodybuilders were selected from Tehran sport clubs with convenience sampling method. After excluding unauthorized questionnaire, 192 questionnaires were analyzed. The data were collected withGeneral-Health Questionnaire (GHQ), Mood State Profile Questionnaire and a researcher-made demographic questionnaire filled out by anabolic steroid users and non-usersin the sport clubs. Descriptive statistics and multivariate analysis of variance in SPSS20 were used to analyze the data. The results indicated a significant difference between anabolic steroid users and non-users in general health, its three subscales (physical, anxiety and social function dysmorphic), and two subscales of mood state profile (tension and anger). Accordingly, in addition to their physiological role in body, anabolic steroid has devastating effects on athletes' general health and mood.
Impulsivity features of individuals affect their movement patterns when learning sports skills. Therefore, this study examined the effect of different levels of motor impulsivity on learning basketball basic skills. 3 groups of boys aged... more
Impulsivity features of individuals affect their movement patterns when learning sports skills. Therefore, this study examined the effect of different levels of motor impulsivity on learning basketball basic skills. 3 groups of boys aged between 10 and 12 who were selected according to motor impulsivity levels participated in a basketball skills training course along with a control group (the subjects were randomly selected). To evaluate their performance,AAHPERD and Hann basketball pass tests were used in thepretest, posttest, retentionandtransfer phases. The results of covariance and analysis of variance in posttest (P=0.0001) andretention test (P=0.011) inAAHPERD basketball pass showed a significant advantagein this test along with increased motor impulsivity levels.However,better performance were along with decreased impulsivity levelsinHann pass task. The observed differences among the groups were not statistically significantin the transfer phase(P=0.112). It can be concluded that different levels of motor impulsivity is one of the main factors affecting sport skills learningwith regard to the speed-oriented and accuracy-oriented skills.
Newell's learning stages model is a learning model based on dynamic systems theory which is divided to three stages based on the relationship among learners' degree of freedom. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of... more
Newell's learning stages model is a learning model based on dynamic systems theory which is divided to three stages based on the relationship among learners' degree of freedom. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of attention focus of instruction on learning a simple skill (throwing darts) and a complex skill (non-dominant foot chip shot). Thestudyconsistedoftwoexperiments. In thefirst experiment,24male studentsofUniversity of Tehran were instructed tothrow darts. Participantsweredivided into two groupsbased onpretest scores, and thenone group received internalfocusinstructionsand the otherexternalfocus instruction. Results showed that external attention focus was more beneficial when learning the skill of throwing darts. In the second experiment, 24 male students of University of Tehranwere instructedto perform non-dominant foot chip shot skill. Participants were divided into two groups based on their pretest scores, and thenone groupreceived internalattention focusinstructionsand otherexternalfocus instruction. The results showed that internal focus of attention was more beneficial when learning the non-dominant foot chip shot. Results of this study suggested that it was more useful to adopt an internal focusin skills whose coordinative structures have not yet formed.
This study compared the effects of neurofeedback and physical practices on performance and retention of dart throwing skill. 24 subjects were selected by convenience sampling method from female physical education students of Urmia... more
This study compared the effects of neurofeedback and physical practices on performance and retention of dart throwing skill. 24 subjects were selected by convenience sampling method from female physical education students of Urmia University who were all right-handed with no history of neurofeedback training and dart throwing. They were divided to three groups: physical practice, neurofeedback and control (each group 8 subjects). The practice protocol was conducted 3 sessions a week for 5 weeks and then posttest was administered. Retention test was conducted 5 days after the last practice session. The data were analyzed by two-way ANOVA with repeated measures of factor test, one-way variance, and post hoc tests. The results of two-way analysis of variance with repeated measures indicated that although the participants progressed in both neurofeedback and physical practices in the performance phase, there was no significant difference between the experimental groups at this stage. In addition, the main effect of the test phases was significant, but the main effect of group and interaction of the test phases and group were not statistically significant. That is to say the difference of the effects of neurofeedback and physical practices on performance and retention of dart skill was not significant. These results clarified the effect of neurofeedback and physical practices; therefore, they need to be used simultaneously.
The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationship between personality traits and incidence of injury in Iranian elite wrestlers. 60Iranian elite athletes participated in this study. Data were collected with injury report... more
The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationship between personality traits and incidence of injury in Iranian elite wrestlers. 60Iranian elite athletes participated in this study. Data were collected with injury report form and NEO personality questionnaire. The descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation coefficient at a significance level of 95% were used for data analysis.Results showed that all of the wrestlers suffered from at least two injuries during one season. The results showed a significant relationshipbetween personality traits includingneuroticism (P≤0.005), extraversion (P≤0.003), openness to experience (P≤0.047), agreeableness (P≤0.0001) and conscientiousness (P≤0.0001).Overall, findings indicated that personality traits such as low neuroticism, high extraversion, low openness to experience, high agreeableness and highconscientiousness helped elite athletes to better handle stressful situations in sports andto confront harmful psychological factors such as stress and anxiety through enhancing self-confidence and finally decrease injury incidence. Thus, officials, coaches, physicians and sport psychologists are recommended to plan to evaluate elite athletes' personality traits so that injury incidence can reduce and be prevented through a selection of those athletes with suitable personality traits.
Perfectionism, in fact, is an irrational belief individuals have about themselves and their surroundings. Perfectionists believe that they and their surroundings must be complete and any attempt in life must be without error. The aim of... more
Perfectionism, in fact, is an irrational belief individuals have about themselves and their surroundings. Perfectionists believe that they and their surroundings must be complete and any attempt in life must be without error. The aim of the present study was to determine the relationship of positive and negative perfectionism with competitive state anxiety. 100 soccer players completed Positive and Negative Perfectionism Scale and Competitive State Anxiety Inventory. For data analysis, Pearson correlation coefficient was used to determine the relationship of the two variables of positive and negative perfectionism with competitive state anxiety and multivariate regression was applied to predict competitive state anxiety by positive and negative perfectionism (P=0. 05). The results showed a negative and significant relationship between positive perfectionism and competitive state anxiety and its somatic and cognitive subscales while there was no negative and significant relationship between positive perfectionism and 'self-confidence' competitive state anxiety subscale. In contrast, other findings showed a positive and significant relationship only between negative perfectionism and 'self-confidence' competitive state anxiety subscale while no significant relationship was observed between negative perfectionism and competitive state anxiety and its other subscales. The final results of regression showed that positive and negative perfectionism could predict subscales of competitive state anxiety in non-professional soccer players.
Various researches know lateral preference of eye and hand pattern as one of the important factors of performing sports skills. This study aimed at investigating the effect of lateral preference of eye and hand pattern on learning... more
Various researches know lateral preference of eye and hand pattern as one of the important factors of performing sports skills. This study aimed at investigating the effect of lateral preference of eye and hand pattern on learning basketball free throw skill. From 3000 female students of Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, 60 subjects (age range 19-22 yr) were selected purposively as the sample using a researcher-made questionnaire of individual information and sporting background, Edinburgh Handedness Inventory (Oldfield, 1971) and hole card (Durand and Gold, 1910) and were assigned to two control and experimental groups (each group: 15 unilateral subjects and 15 crossed-lateral subjects). Firstly, pretest of basketball free throw was conducted. Then, practice protocol was performed for 8 weeks (24 sessions, 3 sessions a week). During this period, 6 posttests were administered to determine learning stages and one week after the last posttest, the retention test was conducted. The results showed a significant difference between unilateral and crossed-lateral (experimental group) subjects in the cognitive (sig=0.000) and associative (sig=0.000) stages of the acquisition of basketball free throw and the unilateral subjects had a better performance. Whereas there was no significant difference between unilateral and crossed-lateral subjects in the autonomous (sig=0.105) and retention (sig=0.086) stages. Finally, the results showed a difference in performance between experimental and control groups in favor of experimental group. According to these results, it seems that long practice and autonomous skill in unilateral and crossed-lateral subjects matched their performance and eliminated their differences. Therefore, coaches are recommended to identify talented subjects after a lot of practice in order to not generalize the result of performance to learning.
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of traditional - local games on the development of gross motor skills of children with educable mental retardation. 30 educable mentally retarded children in Welfare Organization of... more
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of traditional - local games on the development of gross motor skills of children with educable mental retardation. 30 educable mentally retarded children in Welfare Organization of Marivan city (mea age 12.8 ±1.12 yr and IQ 33.61±7.81) were studied with purposive sampling method. All children were pretested; then, samples were randomly divided into two groups: control and experimental. Each group consisted of 8 boys and 7 girls. In gross motor skills, Bruininks - Oseretsky test of Motor Proficiency was used. Traditional - local games were practiced by the experimental group during 32 sessions, each session 50-60 minutes for 4 days a week. The control group performed their daily routine. After 32 sessions of practice, both groups were post-tested. To study the research hypotheses, non-parametric Wilcoxon and U Mann Whitney tests were used (SPSS16). The results showed a significant difference in posttest scores between the two groups (P<0.05). The experimental group had higher scores. The findings suggested that the training program used (traditional - local games) in this study was appropriate to improve the gross motor skills in educable mentally retarded children and can be used as a training program in training centers.
The aim of the present study was to investigate the manipulation of senses and speed on the performance of bimanual dynamic coordination. Thus, 15 physical education students of Shahid Beheshti University with age range of 18-25 years... more
The aim of the present study was to investigate the manipulation of senses and speed on the performance of bimanual dynamic coordination. Thus, 15 physical education students of Shahid Beheshti University with age range of 18-25 years performed in-phase and anti-phase patterns from slow to fast speed in five different sensory conditions. To investigate two motor patterns ANOVA with repeated measures  (5 sensory conditions × 3 speeds) on each in-phase and anti-phase pattern. Bonferroni post hoc test was used to analyze their following effects. The dependent variable was error of relative phase. Results showed that increasing the speed of performance influenced the performance of the anti-phase pattern  (P=0.001), but it did not influence the in-phase pattern  (P=0.9). Sensory manipulation results indicated that proprioception and vision manipulation had an effect on the accuracy and the variability of performance of two relative phases of motor patterns  (P=0.001), but audition manipulation did not affect these patterns  (P=0.315). In addition, the highest mean of error of relative phase and standard deviation of error of relative phase were observed in proprioception manipulation  (P=0.001). It can be expressed that the bimanual linear coordination task in this study was a proprioceptive dependent task.
The present study aimed at determining resources of sport self-confidence in elite bodybuilders and their relationship with body image. The subjects of study included 35 bodybuilders participating in qualifying tournaments of bodybuilding... more
The present study aimed at determining resources of sport self-confidence in elite bodybuilders and their relationship with body image. The subjects of study included 35 bodybuilders participating in qualifying tournaments of bodybuilding national team. A questionnaire for resources of sport self-confidence and a questionnaire of physical self-description were used to collect data. Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, one-sample ttest, Pearson correlation coefficient and one-variable regression with significance level of 0.05 were used to analyze data. The findings showed that ability demonstration (Mean=6.451 ± 0.787) was the most important resource of sport self-confidence in elite bodybuilders. Moreover, the results showed that bodybuilders had a positive body image (t(16.82)=31.94, P<0.001). Regarding the correlation between resources of sport self-confidence and body image, the results showed a positive and significant relationship between all resources of sport self-confidence (except for the vicarious experiences and coaches' leadership style) and body image and the highest level of correlation belonged to ability demonstration with body image (P<0.001, r=0.5920). Furthermore, the results showed that the body image of these bodybuilderswas a predictor of their sport self-confidence (β=0.520, t=3.497, P<0.001). The results of this study support Vealey’s sport self-confidence model.
This study examined the effect of general and specific practice on the presence of a special skill. 24 healthy university students with no history of basketball were selected. After a pretest, they performed constant and variable practice... more
This study examined the effect of general and specific practice on the presence of a special skill. 24 healthy university students with no history of basketball were selected. After a pretest, they performed constant and variable practice (in constant and variable groups) for 5 weeks and 3 sessions per week. A performance test was conducted at the end of every week and retention and transfer tests were conducted after 2 days of detraining. The ANOVA test with repeated measures was used to analyze data. The results showed that the constant practice was better during performance in practice sessions and the variable practice was better in transfer of the mentioned skill. Also, no differences were observed in basketball throw from the penalty location between constant and variable practice groups in retention test. This finding did not support the hypothesis of special skill in basketball throw skill. Therefore, the coaches and players are recommended to use variable practice for more learning of basketball throw skill.
The aim of the present study was to determine psychometric properties of the Persian version of the Group Conflict Questionnaire in male and female athletes. For this purpose, 281 athletes at different skill levels in 25 team and... more
The aim of the present study was to determine psychometric properties of the Persian version of the Group Conflict Questionnaire in male and female athletes. For this purpose, 281 athletes at different skill levels in 25 team and individual sports were selected through cluster random sampling method and were asked to complete the Persian version of this questionnaire. Firstly, the accuracy of the translation was verified using back translation method. In addition, to determine questionnaire’s construct validity, SEM-based confirmatory factor analysis was used. Cronbach alpha coefficient was applied to examine internal consistency and test-retest intra-class correlation coefficient was used to investigate temporal reliability. The fitness indexes indicated proper fit of factor structure of the questionnaire. In addition, the Cronbach alpha coefficients for task conflict, social conflict and the whole questionnaire were 0.83, 0.84, and 0.90 respectively. The intra-class correlation coefficient for all factors and the whole questionnaire were acceptable (ɑ≥0.70). The findings, therefore, supported the two-factor 14-item structure of the questionnaire. Thus, the Persian version of the Group Conflict Questionnaire enjoyed an acceptable validity and reliability among Iranian athletes
Locomotion fundamental skills play an essential role in improving motor development throughout the life span as they provide children with better development by enhancing search abilities in environment. This study aimed at comparing the... more
Locomotion fundamental skills play an essential role in improving motor development throughout the life span as they provide children with better development by enhancing search abilities in environment. This study aimed at comparing the locomotion fundamental skills in 7-year-old children with lower extremity deformities and healthy children. The statistical population consisted of 7-year-old male students with lower extremity deformities in Qazvin city. After a list of schools was prepared, some schools were randomly selected. Then, 96 subjects with lower extremity deformities (flat foot, genu valgum and genu varum) were identified in a primary screening. To evaluate knee alignment, varrum and valgus, a caliper with accuracy of 1.1 mm was used. To measure foot curve, CSI method was used.  To analyze the locomotion skills, Ulrich test of gross motor development (second edition) was applied. The results showed no significant differences between flat foot and genu varum groups and control group in fundamental skills (P>0.05). Significant differences were found between genu valgum group and control group in locomotion fundamental skills (P<0.05). The results showed that genu valgum deformity can have a negative effect on children's performance in locomotion skills and also disrupt the natural alignment of the lower extremities.
The aim of this study was to evaluate blocked, random, gradual incremental and gradual decremental practice schedules on the acquisition and retention of different types of basketball pass (overhead, hand chest , single arm with dominate... more
The aim of this study was to evaluate blocked, random, gradual incremental and gradual decremental practice schedules on the acquisition and retention of different types of basketball pass (overhead, hand chest , single arm with dominate hand) in 8-10-year-old girls. For this purpose, 60 female students of second, third and fourth grade of elementary school were voluntarily selected and randomly divided into 4 groups: blocked, random, gradual incremental and gradual decremental. After a pretest for each skill, the acquisition phase began including 5 practice sessions and 81 trials each session. The blocked group practiced 27 consecutive trials for each skill per session. The random group randomly practiced three intended skills per session. The gradual incremental group practiced the first 27 trials by blocked schedule, the second 27 trials by serial schedule and the third 27 trials by random schedule each session. The gradual decremental group practiced the first 27 trials by random schedule, the second 27 trials by serial schedule and the third 27 trials by blocked schedule each session. Participants conducted 405 trials at the end of the practice protocol. After the fifth practice session, acquisition test was carried out and retention test was taken 3 days later. The results showed no significant differences in the means between the acquisition and retention tests and these practices with different levels of interference did not have any drastic effects on different phases of learning (P>0.05).
Fundamental movement skills are observable patterns of motor behaviors including locomotor, manipulative, and stability activities. The aim of this study was to assess the gross motor development and the movement skill proficiency in... more
Fundamental movement skills are observable patterns of motor behaviors including locomotor, manipulative, and stability activities. The aim of this study was to assess the gross motor development and the movement skill proficiency in elementary school children in Tehran city. The test of Gross Motor Development-2 (Ulrich, 2000) was administered to 712 children aged between 7 and 11. Performance of each 12 gross motor skills was assessed qualitatively. The percentages of poor/professional and nearly professional (advanced) children were reported by gender and age group. The assessments indicated that the highest percentages of advance level for both genders belonged to sliding and running, but these proportions were generally low in other skills. The percentages of advanced boys were statistically more than the percentages of girls in one locomotor skill (leaping) and two object-control skills (kicking and striking). In three object-control skills (dribbling, kicking and throwing), the percentages of the older advanced children were statistically more than younger ones. It was suggested that more attention should be paid to promote movement skill proficiency in elementary schools.
The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI-2) is the most widely used instrument to measure competitive anxiety in the literature. The aim of this study was to examine the factorial validity and reliability of Persian version of... more
The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI-2) is the most widely used instrument to measure competitive anxiety in the literature. The aim of this study was to examine the factorial validity and reliability of Persian version of Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 regarding intensity, direction, and frequency dimensions. The original form included 27 questions and 3 subscales including somatic anxiety, cognitive anxiety, and self-confidence. 356 questionnaires were completed by 16-34-year-old athletes who took part in different sport fields. Five competing models were used to estimate construct validity of the inventory. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to contrast the proposed models. The inventory reliability was calculated using the internal consistency method. To examine temporal reliability, intraclass correlation coefficient was applied using test–retest method. The results showed that the Persian version of the inventory supported the 16-item 3-factor model in intensity, direction, and frequency dimensions; thus, validity and reliability of the inventory were confirmed. In conclusion, Persian version of Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 with 16 items is recommended to measure athletes' state competitive anxiety.
One of the basic motor skills in childhood is manipulation skills. Gross motor manipulation is a person's relationship with the objects and has this feature: force is applied to an object or the force of an object is absorbed. The aim of... more
One of the basic motor skills in childhood is manipulation skills. Gross motor manipulation is a person's relationship with the objects and has this feature: force is applied to an object or the force of an object is absorbed. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of a selected motor program including team traditional games as motor experiences on manipulation skills development in boys aged between 6 and 8 (1st to 3rd grade of elementary school) in deprived areas. In this semi-experimental study, 20 children were selected from the male children in deprived areas of Andimeshk city purposively by convenience sampling method through a personality questionnaire. Firstly, they were pretested with Ulrich Gross Motor Development Test. The subjects were randomly matched in two groups: 10 kids in experiment group and 10 kids in control group. Then the selected motor program was executed for 24 sessions, 45 minutes each session for 8 weeks. During the execution of the program, the control group performed their usual activities. After the end of the program, both groups were post-tested. After checking the normality of the data and equality of variances, data were analyzed using multivariate analysis of variance and one-way ANOVA in the context of MANOVA. Results showed that traditional games had a positive effect on development of manipulation skills (F6.4=30.75, sig=0.003, ƞ2=0.979). So an opportunity can be provided for children to train and increase the development of their basic manipulation skills and their movement by encouraging them to play proper games and enriching the environment.
The aim of this study was to design a program to educate emotion management and to evaluate its effectiveness on controlling anger and mental health in soccer players. The method of this study was quasi-experimental, pretest-posttest with... more
The aim of this study was to design a program to educate emotion management and to evaluate its effectiveness on controlling anger and mental health in soccer players. The method of this study was quasi-experimental, pretest-posttest with control group. The population consisted of all players of soccer teams in adult premier league in 2014. 40 players of soccer teams in premier league were selected by convenience sampling method and 12 subjects were randomly selected for the experimental group and 12 subjects for the control group. To assess mental health and anger control, the SCL-90 Questionnaire and the Anger Control Skill Questionnaire and the Particular Emotional Anger Management Training Package by Abrams (2010) were used. ANCOVA results showed that emotional management training significantly increased attacking behavior control in soccer players. Also, emotional management training significantly reduced mental disorders in soccer players. Emotional management training package could increase the capacity of processing and emotional management in soccer players given the various dimensions of emotions (physiological, behavioral and cognitive) and the style of management (recognition of physiological manifestation, behavior control and change of cognitive deviations).
The term autistic refers to the individuals who have a set of development disorders relevant to the central nervous system. These children are known to have deficiency in social interaction, language and communication. The aim of this... more
The term autistic refers to the individuals who have a set of development disorders relevant to the central nervous system. These children are known to have deficiency in social interaction, language and communication. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between motor development and social development of 6-10-year-old autistic children of Mashhad city. The statistical sample involved 41 students with high–functioning autism (31 boys and 10 girls). The researcher calculated the students' social development scores using SCQ questionnaire. Using Lincoln-Oseretsky Motor Development Scale, the level of motor development was determined. In descriptive section, mean and standard deviation were used and in inferential section, Pearson correlation coefficient was applied with 95% confidence level. The results showed a significant relationship between students' motor development and their social development (P<0.05). Also, there was a significant relationship between the boys' gross motor skills, fine motor skills, hand-eye coordination and their social development (P<0.05). The girls' fine motor skills and hand-eye coordination were significantly related to their social development (P<0.05), but there was no significant relationship between the agility of fingers and social development in both groups (P>0.05). These results of the relationship between motor development and social development showed that motor skills can affect the improvement of autistic students.
Children's development is shaped based on a combination of environmental, organism, physiological and genetic factors. Recent researches on the development of children and toddlers convincingly show that the best growth level happens in a... more
Children's development is shaped based on a combination of environmental, organism, physiological and genetic factors. Recent researches on the development of children and toddlers convincingly show that the best growth level happens in a motivating environment and a powerful support. This study aimed at evaluating the effect of an environment affordance intervention on social development of toddlers aged between 24 and 42 months. The sample included 46 healthy toddlers aged between 24 and 42 months in Ghoochan city who were randomly selected by multi-stage cluster sampling methods. The subjects were assigned to three groups: experimental (n=16), kindergarten (n=15) and control (n=15). The experimental group was placed in an afforded environment for 36 sessions (3 months). To examine toddlers' home environment and afforded environment of experimental group, the Affordances in the Home Environment for Motor Development– (AHEMD) was used for motor development and Vineland Scale was applied for social development. Data were analyzed using univariate analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). The findings showed no significant differences in social development among the groups (P=0.963). The results indicated that environment affordances had no effects on toddlers' social development in the experimental group. Therefore, the present study concluded that environment affordance did not influence toddlers' social development aged between 24 and 42 months.
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of positive normative feedback on acquisition and retention of throwing skill. The method was quasi-experimental and the population consisted of the 5th grade elementary female students.... more
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of positive normative feedback on acquisition and retention of throwing skill. The method was quasi-experimental and the population consisted of the 5th grade elementary female students. 60 students were randomly selected from the population and were randomly assigned to four different groups: normative task-orientation, non-normative task-orientation, normative self-orientation and non-normative self-orientation. In a pretest, all subjects attempted 10 throws receiving no feedback. Acquisition phase took 3 days in which each subject attempted a total of 60 throws (20 throws per day). All groups received feedback at this stage; however, only the positive normative group received 20% more feedback. After 48 hours, subjects responded to a retention test. The results showed no significant difference in feedback performance of groups in the acquisition phase. However, this difference was reported significant in retention phase. Tukey post hoc test revealed a significant difference in the mean scores of subjects between normative and non-normative self-orientation groups. No significant differences were observed between task-orientation and self-orientation subjects in their perceived merit
This study aimed at examining the effect of different focus of attention instructions and cognitive styles on the learning of dart throwing skill. 80 children were randomly selected and divided into four equal groups: a) field... more
This study aimed at examining the effect of different focus of attention instructions and cognitive styles on the learning of dart throwing skill. 80 children were randomly selected and divided into four equal groups: a) field independent-external attention, b) field independent-internal attention, c) field dependent-external attention and d) field independent-internal attention based on their pretest scores (10 trials of dart throwing). Then, in acquisition phase, they practiced 6 blocks of 10 trials of dart throwing task with regard to their focus of attention and cognitive style. Retention test was conducted 24 hours after the acquisition phase similar to pretest. After ensuring data normality by Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, ANOVA 4*6 with repeated measures was conducted on block factor and one-way ANOVA and Bonferroni post hoc test was applied in acquisition and retention phases respectively. Results showed significant differences in scores of all groups in all phases (P<0.05) and those with field independent style had better performance in external focus of attention than internal focus of attention and those with field dependent style had better performance in internal focus of attention than external focus of attention. In other words, cognitive styles must be noted during recruiting the focuses of attention.
The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of contextual interference on balance of mentally retarded people. For this purpose, 40 educable and mentally retarded boys in Qazvin city (mean age 24.45 ± 3.120) were randomly... more
The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of contextual interference on balance of mentally retarded people. For this purpose, 40 educable and mentally retarded boys in Qazvin city (mean age 24.45 ± 3.120) were randomly divided into two groups: blocked and random practice. After the pretest, given their practice arrangement, subjects in each group performed their workout for 4 weeks (3 sessions per week) as the acquisition phase. Acquisition test was conducted in the last session, and then retention and transfer tests were performed after 48 hours. After Kolmogorov-Smirnov test verified normal data distribution and Leven test examined the homogeneity of variances, analysis of variance with repeated measures showed that the intervention was effective and the groups significantly improved (P=0.0005). The results of the independent t test (to compare two groups in static balance) showed that random practice group performed better in retention test (P=0.007) whereas no significant differences were observed between the groups in transfer test (P=0.061). In addition, dynamic balance results showed that random practice group performed better than the blocked practice group and it had a significant difference in retention and transfer tests (respectively P=0.001, P=0.002). So, mentally retarded people can use the beneficial effects of random practice.
The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of different methods of self-talk (motivational, instructional, and combined) on acquisition and learning of a motor perceptional task (dart) and physical efficacy in female... more
The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of different methods of self-talk (motivational, instructional, and combined) on acquisition and learning of a motor perceptional task (dart) and physical efficacy in female students aged between 13 and 18. 48 female students (mean age 15.46 yr) who were novice at dart throwing voluntarily participated in this study. Participants were divided into 4 groups including motivational self-talk, instructional self-talk, motivational-instructional self-talk and physical practice (12 students in each group) following an initial instructional session and pretest. The intervention included 10 sessions of acquisition, 2 sessions of retention test and one session of transfer test. One-way ANOVA and ANOVA with repeated measures were used to analyze data. Results showed that combined (motivational-instructional) and the instructional self-talk groups improved dart throwing performance in acquisition, immediate and delayed retention sessions in 13-18-year-old students compared with the motivational self-talk and physical exercise groups. Instructional self-talk group showed the best performance in transfer test while the other three groups showed almost similar performances. The results also showed that different interventions had no significant effects on physical self-efficacy of the participants.
The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of physical training and working memory training on mental rotation ability. 45 non-athlete female students were purposively selected and randomly assigned to one of these groups:... more
The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of physical training and working memory training on mental rotation ability. 45 non-athlete female students were purposively selected and randomly assigned to one of these groups: aerobic training, working memory training and control (each group 15 subjects). This study was quasi-experimental, which was a type of pretest-posttest with a control group. Mental rotation test was conducted for the sample. Physical training and working memory training groups participated respectively in aerobic training and working memory training for 30 minutes daily for two weeks. The control group performed their daily activities. Results of ANOVA with repeated measures showed that aerobic and working memory training affected mental rotation ability (P≤0.05). The findings suggested that cognitive abilities are facilitated by cognitive and motor interventions.
Pressure refers to the feelings an athlete has about performing in a competitive situation. The primary aim of this study was to examine kinematic changes of tennis serves in increasing competitive pressure. 20 semi-professional... more
Pressure refers to the feelings an athlete has about performing in a competitive situation. The primary aim of this study was to examine kinematic changes of tennis serves in increasing competitive pressure. 20 semi-professional right-handed male tennis players completed 120 serves under low (normal) and high competitive pressure phases. Pressure checks (heart rate and perceived competitive state anxiety) were administered before serves in the low and the high-pressure phases. Performance and kinematic parameters of the serves (two-dimensional motion analysis) were also measured. The pressure manipulation showed a significant increase in the heart rate and perceived pressure from the low pressure to the high pressure (P<0.001). Decreased performance showed that the choking effect under pressure was observed (P<0.001). Results showed that the height of serves significantly decreased under pressure (P<0.001), while the ball speed remained unchanged (P>0.05). This study explained performance changes under competitive pressure using kinematic factors.
In recent years, researchers have become interested in examining the effect of PETTLEP imagery on motor performance and how PETTLEP imagery can improve the performance. The aim of this study was to compare the effect of PETTLEP imagery... more
In recent years, researchers have become interested in examining the effect of PETTLEP imagery on motor performance and how PETTLEP imagery can improve the performance. The aim of this study was to compare the effect of PETTLEP imagery and balance practice on dynamic balance in the elderly. Participants were 42 male elderly in Arak city. They were divided into 4 groups based on the scores of dynamic balance pretest. In order to measure dynamic balance, Bass and Star Balance tests were used. Homogeneous training groups included PETTLEP imagery, balance practice, mixed practice (balance practice and PETTLEP imagery practice) and control group. All groups except for the control group practiced 3 sessions (each session 45 min.) a week for 6 weeks. MANOVA with repeated measures was used to analyze the data (P≤0.01). Results showed the mixed and balance practice groups significantly  improved in Bass and Star dynamic balance (P=0.000, P=0.001, P=0.000, P=0.000). PETTLEP imagery and control groups showed no significant improvement in Bass and Star dynamic balance (P=0.24, P=0.53, P=0.36, P=0.28). Also, the mixed group had more improvement in Bass and Star dynamic balance than balance practice group (P=0.002, P=0.004). Overall, these results showed that PETTLEP imagery practice along with physical training improved dynamic balance in male elderly, but PETTLEP imagery alone did not affect the improvement of dynamic balance in the male elderly.
The main aim of the present study was to examine the effect of field-independent and field-dependent cognitive styles on learning an aiming task in closed and open environments based on fuzzy and classic logics. 60 male students with an... more
The main aim of the present study was to examine the effect of field-independent and field-dependent cognitive styles on learning an aiming task in closed and open environments based on fuzzy and classic logics. 60 male students with an age range of 16-17 were assigned to four groups (each group 15 subjects): field-independent with classic approach, field-dependent with classic approach, field-independent with fuzzy approach and field-dependent with fuzzy approach. Participants in each group had basketball pass test in both open and closed environments. The acquisition phase consisted of six sessions and 60 trials in 6 blocks of 10 trials were performed in each session. The transfer test was conducted one day and retention test was carried out one week after the acquisition phase. The results of this study indicated a significant difference between field-independent and field-dependent with classic approach in both closed and open environments, and field-independent participants had a better performance during all stages of the test (acquisition, retention, and transfer). But, no significant differences were observed between field-independent and field-dependent with fuzzy approach. However, the comparison of means indicated that field-independent participants had better performance in closed environments, and, field-dependent participants had better performance in open environments.
According to specificity of practice hypothesis, availability of visual information during practice induces performance decrement in no-vision transfer test. One hypothesis is that full vision as a dominant source of information prevents... more
According to specificity of practice hypothesis, availability of visual information during practice induces performance decrement in no-vision transfer test. One hypothesis is that full vision as a dominant source of information prevents the processing of other sensory sources, in which case, weakened vision may reduce dominance of vision over other sensory sources. The aim of the current study was to examine the effect of different vision levels and amount of practice on dart throwing accuracy. 30 right-handed female students of Shahid Beheshti University (mean age 22.80±1.47) were voluntarily selected and randomly divided into three groups: full vision, no-vision and weakened vision. The acquisition phase consisted of two phases of low (45 trials) and high (300 trials) amount of practice. Mixed model ANOVA (2x3) showed that removing vision had no deteriorating effect at the beginning of the practice , but it had a deteriorating effect after extensive practice in the performance of full vision group (P=0.001). Moreover, removing vision did not affect the performance of weakened vision group which could indicate that weakened visual might not prevent the processing of other sources of sensory information. The results of this study supported specificity of practice hypothesis after 300 trials of practice with removing vision. But this hypothesis was not supported with adding vision and dominance of proprioceptive information was not observed. It was likely that dependence on dominant sources of information (vision) appeared sooner while dependence on secondary sources of information (proprioceptive) takes more time and appeared after more trials of practice.
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of mental imagery and physical practice on dynamic balance in male patients with multiple sclerosis. This study was semi-experimental and the statistical population included male... more
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of mental imagery and physical practice on dynamic balance in male patients with multiple sclerosis. This study was semi-experimental and the statistical population included male patients with multiple sclerosis in Ahvaz city in 2012 (N=300). For sampling, Visual and Kinesthetic Imagery Questionnaire and EDSS scale were used. Finally, 33 patients with similar ability of imagery and moderate disorder in EDSS Scale were selected and randomly assigned to 3 groups: mental imagery-physical practice (n=11), mental imagery (n=11) and physical practice (as control group, n=11). The TUG test was used to assess dynamic balance in the pretest, posttest and retention test. The training protocol consisted of 3 sessions a week for 6 weeks. Posttest was performed 2 weeks after the last session of the training protocol. After investigating the data normality and variance equality, data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance with repeated measures, one-way analysis of variance and Tukey post hoc test. The results indicated a significant difference in posttest (P=0.02) and retention (P=0.003) phases among the groups, and combined group had a better performance than the other groups during both phases. According to these results, mental imagery can be used as a practical method for the better performance of dynamic balance in patients with multiple sclerosis.
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of forced physical exercise with moderate intensity on Alzheimer-induced amnesia in adult male rats. 48 male Wistar- Albino rats were randomly selected and assigned to 6 groups (n=8 per... more
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of forced physical exercise with moderate intensity on Alzheimer-induced amnesia in adult male rats. 48 male Wistar- Albino rats were randomly selected and assigned to 6 groups (n=8 per group): control, placebo (saline), drug-exercise, saline-exercise, exercise and exercise-drug. In this study, Dicyclomine (16 mg/kg) was used to induce Alzheimer-like amnesia and moderate exercise (60 minutes per day × 30 days). The rats were trained and tested using Morris water maze­. The findings showed that the group receiving Dicyclomine increased­ delay in reaching the platform­ in acquisition (P=0.044) and recall (P=0.031) compared with exercise, control and saline groups. But there were no significant differences between exercise and exercise-saline groups compared with exercise-Dicyclomine group. Also, a significant difference (delay in reaching the platform) was observed between Dicyclomine-exercise, saline-exercise compared with Dicyclomine in acquisition (P=0.005) and recall (P=0.002). In conclusion, this study showed that memory and learning in the acquisition and recall phases were destroyed by Dicyclomine and 30 sessions of moderate-intensity running (forced) could prevent memory corruption.
Introduction: The mental appraisal and athlete's ability to deal with stressful factors affect the development of negative emotional states and anxiety. Considering the impact of stress and related psychological responses on performance,... more
Introduction: The mental appraisal and athlete's ability to deal with stressful factors affect the development of negative emotional states and anxiety. Considering the impact of stress and related psychological responses on performance, interventions that reduce stress and may thus increase athletic performance need to be investigated.
This study aimed to determine the effect of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) on psychological choking, fear of failure, and shooting performance underpressure in students of Imam Ali Officers’ University.
Methods: This quasi-experimental study was conducted with a pre-test and post-test design that includes a control and an experimental group. Forty students of Imam Ali Officers' University participated in this study. In the pre-test and post-test, the fearof failure and psychological choking questionnaires and also shooting performance tests were used. The tDCS was applied for 20 minutes with an intensity of 2 mA overthe dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) region for 10 sessions. Data were analyzed using univariate repeated measures ANOVA test.
Results: The results showed that tDCS over DLPFC could reduce psychological choking under pressure but could not change the fear of failure. The results also showed that tDCS can increase shooting performance under pressure.
Conclusion: In general, it can be concluded that tDCS probably increase performance-related indicators in high-pressure military environments. However, more studies are needed to find the underlying mechanisms.
Introduction: Motor imagery is one of the cognitive aspects of the tasks which is investigated as a factor affecting performance in many situations. Also, another cognitive dimension of tasks that researchers believe to play an important... more
Introduction: Motor imagery is one of the cognitive aspects of the tasks which is investigated as a factor affecting performance in many situations. Also, another cognitive dimension of tasks that researchers believe to play an important role in motor control and performance is mental representation. This study aimed to determine the relationship between motor imagery ability and mental representation structure in basketball free throw.
Methods: The design of this research was correlational and a convenient method of sampling was used. In this study, the Motor Imagery Questionnaire-Revised and Mental Representation Software were used as tools. The motor imagery ability of 60 female basketball players was measured and 10 participants with the highest (mean age: 16.3±2.05 years) and 10 participants with the lowest (mean age: 20.3±4.9 years) imagery ability were selected. Then, their mental representation was measured using mental representation software. The relationship between motor imagery ability and mental representation was analyzed using correlational analysis.
Results: The results showed that the group with the highest motor imagery ability had a more structured mental representation which was more similar to that of criterion mental representation. Also, the results showed that there was a positive relationship between imagery and mental representation structure scores in both groups.
Conclusion: These results were interpreted using the perceptual-cognitive approach. Also, these results were considered a piece of evidence for the top-down process of imagery. Achieving these results indicate that psychological skills training accompanied by technical skills training will have a critical contribution for the athletes to success in sports.
Introduction: Lifestyle changes and the increasing trend of children's developmental disorders, especially in the field of social interactions have made it necessary to conduct research in this field of study. So the present study aimed... more
Introduction: Lifestyle changes and the increasing trend of children's developmental disorders, especially in the field of social interactions have made it necessary to conduct research in this field of study. So the present study aimed to investigate the action-specific perception in the different focus of attention conditions in autistic children.
Methods: In a quasi-experimental study, 45 people with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder were identified and randomly divided into three Internal Attention, External Attention, and Control groups (15 people in each group). The participant's task was to throw darts and estimate the target size. After the pre-test, the groups performed the dart-throwing task in 5 blocks of 10 trials. The focus of attention instructions - specific to the experimental groups- were given before each trial, and subjects were asked to estimate the target size before performing the tasks in each block. For this, participants used a circle shape in Microsoft PowerPoint to draw a circle the same size as the darts' target. The next day, retention and transfer tests were performed.
Results: The results showed that the Internal Attention group was better than the External Attention and Control groups both in dart-throwing performance in acquisition, retention, and transfer stages and in action-specific perception (P≤0.05).
Conclusion: In general, the findings showed that in children with autism spectrum disorder, internal attention leads to better performance and learning than external attention. Therefore coaches and physical education teachers who work with these children should emphasize on benefits of internal focus of attention when designing training sessions.
Introduction: Sport is an important part of students' life. The social development of athletes could be different based on their gender and type of sport. The present study aimed to compare the social development of athletes (team and... more
Introduction: Sport is an important part of students' life. The social development of athletes could be different based on their gender and type of sport. The present study aimed to compare the social development of athletes (team and individual sports disciplines) and non-athlete students of Farhangian University.
Methods: In a descriptive cross-sectional survey research, 2000 male and female students of Farhangian University of Mazandaran province were recruited as a statistical population. 300 students were selected using the cluster random sampling method. Witsman's Social Development Questionnaire (1990) was used as the research instrument.  To analyze the data, a two-way analysis of variance and Tukey's post hoc test were used.
Results: Based on the results of the two-way analysis of variance, significant results were found for the main effect of gender and group variables. However, the interaction effect of group and gender was not significant. The social development of female students was higher compared with male students. Based on the results of Tukey's post hoc test, athletes had significantly higher social development than non-athletes. Although the social development of athletes in individual sport discipline had a higher mean than the team athletes, the difference was not significant.
Conclusion: Considering the higher social development of athletes compared with non-athletes and also, almost identical social development scores for both groups of athletes (team and individual sports disciplines), it is suggested that coaches foster a supportive environment by emphasizing the importance of equality of each athlete to provide the basis for social development among all people.
Introduction: It is essential to become physically literate to develop movement skills, as the knowledge and motivation necessary to lead an active lifestyle. The aim of this study was to determine the validity and reliability of Canadian... more
Introduction: It is essential to become physically literate to develop movement skills, as the knowledge and motivation necessary to lead an active lifestyle. The aim of this study was to determine the validity and reliability of Canadian physical literacy knowledge and motivation questionnaires among 8-10-year-old children in Isfahan.
Methods: These questionnaires were translated using the translation–back-translation methodology into Persian and adapted to the Iranian context. A Persian version of these questionnaires was evaluated for its psychometric properties by 384 students aged 8 to 10 in Isfahan city (Iran). The construct validity of the questionnaires was determined using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses based on structural equation modeling, and the internal consistency was checked using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. The test-retest method determined the temporal reliability of the questionnaires.
Results: Face validity was confirmed by five experts in the field of motor behavior. According to the obtained thresholds, the construct validity was acceptable based on the goodness of fit index. A Cronbach's alpha coefficient greater than 0.85 was obtained for the knowledge and motivation questionnaire as its dimensions. The test-retests within two weeks showed that the intragroup correlation coefficients for all five components were acceptable for both boys and girls.
Conclusion: Based on the results, the Persian version of Canadian Physical Literacy Knowledge and Motivation Questionnaires for 8-10-year-old children had good validity and reliability. Therefore, it is appropriate to use these tools to measure the children's physical literacy in Isfahan city.
Introduction: The present study aimed to develop a model of the relationship between trait anxiety and the components of attentional styles in athlete students. Methods: The current research strategy was descriptive and correlational,... more
Introduction: The present study aimed to develop a model of the relationship between trait anxiety and the components of attentional styles in athlete students.
Methods: The current research strategy was descriptive and correlational, with the approach of developing a correlational model. In three stages, the attentional styles questionnaire was translated into Persian and was evaluated psychometrically. Its process consisted of the French version translation into Persian, re-translation into French, and the final translation. In this study, 245 athletes were selected conveniently from the student population of Shahid Beheshti University. Participants completed attentional styles and trait anxiety questionnaires. Data were analyzed using Confirmatory Factor Analysis, Cronbach's alpha coefficient, and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM).
Results: Cronbach's alpha coefficient for two factors of top-down and bottom-up attention was 0.70 and 0.72, respectively. The confirmatory factor analysis results showed that the factor loadings of five items (items 2 and 4 of the top-down attention factor, and items 3, 8, and 9 of the bottom-up attention factor) were less than 0.4, so they were removed. SEM results showed that trait anxiety has an inverse and significant relationship with top-down attention and a direct and significant relationship with bottom-up attention.
Conclusion: The results of the present study highlighted the importance and necessity of paying attention to the relationship between trait anxiety and the components of attentional styles in athletes. Therefore, in planning training programs and improving sports performance, taking this relationship into account can be an effective step in preventing adverse outcomes in sports competitions.
Introduction: Athletes in team sports must make many decisions when perceiving and interpreting available environmental information regarding the position of the ball,teammates, and opposing players while taking appropriate actions.... more
Introduction: Athletes in team sports must make many decisions when perceiving and interpreting available environmental information regarding the position of the ball,teammates, and opposing players while taking appropriate actions. Considering the nature of volleyball and the need to pay attention to multiple stimuli during training and matches, a high capacity for cognitive abilities such as working memory seems essential. This research aimed to compare the effectiveness of spatial and numerical working memory of skilled and semi-skilled volleyball players following decision-making exercises.
Methods: sixty female volleyball players, 30 of them for the semi-skilled group (15 people for each of the training and control groups) and 30 for the skilled group (15 people for each of the training and control groups) with the age range of 19-25 years were selected according to purposive sampling method. The protocol of decision-making exercises was carried out for 18 sessions and three blocks of 20-trial exercises were performed according to the training instructions for each group. The working memory capacity test was used to evaluate working memory. To test the hypothesis, due to the normal distribution of the data, the between- and within-groups factorial analysis of variance (mixed model) was used.
Results: The results of the analysis at the significance level of α = 0.05 showed that there is a significant difference between the training groups, and the decision-making group got the highest score. The decision-making exercises at the semi-skilled level of proficiency compared to the skill level has a significant improvement in the spatial working memory variable.
Conclusion: The result shows that exercises with high cognitive load can be a necessity to ncrease spatial working memory in semi-skilled female volleyball players.
Introduction: Many studies evaluate the interaction between cognition and posture but the effect of cognitive task difficulty and articulation on postural control remains inconclusive. The purpose of the present study was to examine the... more
Introduction: Many studies evaluate the interaction between cognition and posture but the effect of cognitive task difficulty and articulation on postural control remains inconclusive. The purpose of the present study was to examine the interaction effect of cognitive task difficulty and articulation on postural control.
Methods: Twenty healthy young volunteers (Mean age 22 ± 2.3 years) performed four random conditions while standing on a force platform. Conditions involved combinations of two level of cognitive task difficulty (easy and difficult cognitive
task) and two level of verbal response (simultaneous and final).
Results: Two-way ANOVA (significant level P<0.05) results demonstrated marked increased in the standard deviation and area of 95% confidence ellipse of the center of pressure in the difficult cognitive task condition with simultaneous verbal
response. (P<0.05). Also, in the final response condition, difficult cognitive task reduced area of 95% confidence ellipse.
Conclusion: According to the results of the present research, it seems that the difficult cognitive task requires a greater part of attention capacity; subsequently,attention is withdrawn from the postural task and automatic control regulates posture more efficiently through unconscious, fast, and reflexive processes. Also, postural control is simultaneously affected by the difficulty of cognitive task and articulation.Therefore, for designing appropriate interventions, it seems necessary to pay attention to the interactive effects of the difficulty and articulation of cognitive task.
Introduction: The purpose of the current study was to examine the simultaneous effect of the ‌transcranial direct current stimulation (tDSC) and observational learning on learning ‌of basketball free throw. ‌ Methods: In semi-experimental... more
Introduction: The purpose of the current study was to examine the simultaneous effect of the ‌transcranial direct current stimulation (tDSC) and observational learning on learning ‌of basketball free throw. ‌
Methods: In semi-experimental study with repeated measure design, 30 novice female ‌students in free basketball throw accessibly selected and randomly located in 2 ‌tDCS with model observation and artificial stimulation with model observation ‌groups. In pre test phase, participants throw 15 trials basketball free throw. ‌Intervention phase done in 5 consecutive days that each day electrical stimulation ‌of the brain was performed from the motor cortex (C3 anode & Fp2 anode), and ‌artificial stimulation with model observation, and then participants performed 15 ‌free basketball throws. In last session post test phase executed. One week and 21 ‌days after post test phase respectively executed short term and long term retention ‌phase. Data analyzed with ANOVA with repeated measure statistical method.‌
Results: The result indicated that tDCS with model observation (F= 22.327, sig =0.0001, η2 =0,615) and artificial stimulation with model observation (F= 3.044, sig =0.023, η2 =0,179) significantly improved basketball free throw. Other results indicated that ‌tDCS with model observation than artificial stimulation with model observation ‌cause improvement basketball free throw in post test (p=0.002), short term test (p=0.002) and long term test (p=0.001). ‌
Conclusion: Overall, the results of the current study indicated that tDCS with model observation ‌can be effective as a new training method in addition to model observation to ‌improve basketball free throw skills‌.

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