Journal of Sports and Motor Development and Learning

Scientific Journal

Document Type : Research Paper I Open Access I Released under CC BY-NC 4.0 license

Authors

¹ Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences in Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.

² Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences in Sports , Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.

³ Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences in Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, University of Tehran, Tehran , Iran.

⁴ Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences in Sports , Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, University of Tehran, Tehran , Iran.

⁵ Department of Educational and Curriculum Methods and Programs, University of Tehran , Tehran, Iran.

https://doi.org/10.22059/jsmdl.2025.393957.1839

Abstract

Introduction: The present study was conducted to investigate the effect of virtual reality training on gross and fine motor skills in children with developmental coordination disorder.
Methods: In this semi-experimental study with a repeated measures design, 24 boys aged 7 to 10 years from Tehran diagnosed with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) were selected based on inclusion criteria and randomly assigned to two groups: virtual reality training and control. Participants completed the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT-2) at pretest. The intervention phase lasted six weeks, with three 20-minute sessions per week, during which the virtual reality group performed the prescribed training program while the control group engaged in their usual daily activities. A posttest was conducted in the final session.
Results: The results showed that virtual reality training led to a significant improvement in both gross and fine motor skills in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) (p < 0.05). Additionally, the findings indicated that the improvements in gross and fine motor skills were maintained in both short-term and long-term follow-up tests (p < 0.05).
Conclusion: Based on the results, virtual reality training can likely be used in clinical and home programs to improve gross and fine motor skills in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD), as it can stimulate interest and promote active participation.

Keywords

Main Subjects

Motor Development and Learning

References

Alhasan, H. (2022). Exergames as a rehabilitation modality to improve postural control and risk of falls in frail and pre-frail older adults (Doctoral dissertation, Loughborough University).

American Psychiatric Association, D. S. M. T. F., & American Psychiatric Association, D. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 (Vol. 5, No. 5). Washington, DC: American psychiatric association.

Ashkenazi, T., Weiss, P. L., Orian, D., & Laufer, Y. (2013). Low-cost virtual reality intervention program for children with developmental coordination disorder: a pilot feasibility study. Pediatric Physical Therapy, 25(4), 467-473. https://doi.org/10.1097/PEP.0b013e3182a74398

Bexson, C., Oldham, G., & Wray, J. (2024). Safety of virtual reality use in children: a systematic review. European journal of Pediatrics, 183(5), 2071-2090. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00431-024-05488-5

Bolk, J., Källén, K., Farooqi, A., Hafström, M., Fellman, V., Åden, U., & Serenius, F. (2023). Perinatal risk factors for developmental coordination disorder in children born extremely preterm. Acta Paediatrica, 112(4), 675-685. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.16651

Brooke, B., Zhang, T., Lee, J., Gu, X., & West, A. (2020). Virtual reality and its effectiveness on motor development and rehabilitation in children with disorders. American Journal of Biomedical Science & Research, 269-273. https://doi.org/ 10.34297/AJBSR.2020.07.001156

Donegan, T., & Sanchez-Vives, M. V. (2024). Perception and control of a virtual body in immersive virtual reality for rehabilitation. Current Opinion in Neurology, 37(6), 638-644. https://doi.org/10.1097/WCO.0000000000001321

EbrahimiSani, S., Sohrabi, M., Taheri, H., Agdasi, M. T., & Amiri, S. (2020). Effects of virtual reality training intervention on predictive motor control of children with DCD–A randomized controlled trial. Research in developmental disabilities, 107, 103768.https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103768

Farhat, F., Ammar, A., Mezghani, N., Kammoun, M. M., Trabelsi, K., Gharbi, A., ... & Smits-Engelsman, B. (2025). The effect of task-oriented basketball training on motor skill-related fitness in children with developmental coordination disorder. Sports, 13(3), 62. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13030062

Fogel, Y., Stuart, N., Joyce, T., & Barnett, A. L. (2023). Relationships between motor skills and executive functions in developmental coordination disorder (DCD): A systematic review. Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 30(3), 344-356. https://doi.org/10.1080/11038128.2021.2019306

Gao, J., Song, W., Zhong, Y., Huang, D., Wang, J., Zhang, A., & Ke, X. (2024). Children with developmental coordination disorders: A review of approaches to assessment and intervention. Frontiers in neurology, 15, 1359955. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2024.1359955

Gonsalves, L., Campbell, A., Jensen, L., & Straker, L. (2015). Children with developmental coordination disorder play active virtual reality games differently than children with typical development. Physical therapy, 95(3), 360-368. https://doi.org/10.2522/ptj.20140116

Grohs, M. N., Craig, B. T., Kirton, A., & Dewey, D. (2020). Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation on motor function in children 8–12 years with developmental coordination disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 14, 608131. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.608131

Jelsma, L. D., Cavalcante Neto, J. L., Smits-Engelsman, B., Targino Gomes Draghi, T., Araújo Rohr, L., & Tudella, E. (2023). Type of active video-games training does not impact the effect on balance and agility in children with and without developmental coordination disorder: A randomized comparator-controlled trial. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 12(1), 64-73.

Kari, T., & Makkonen, M. (2014). Explaining the usage intentions of exergames.

Keil, J., Edler, D., O’Meara, D., Korte, A., & Dickmann, F. (2021). Effects of virtual reality locomotion techniques on distance estimations. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 10(3), 150. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi10030150

Krause, J. M., & Benavidez, E. A. (2014). Potential influences of exergaming on self-efficacy for physical activity and sport. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 85(4), 15-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2014.884428

Li, Y., Jiang, C., Li, H., Su, Y., Li, M., Cao, Y., & Zhang, G. (2025). Combat sports in virtual reality for rehabilitation and disability adaptation: a mini-review. Frontiers in Public Health, 13, 1557338. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2025.1557338

Lieberman, D. A., Chamberlin, B., Medina Jr, E., Franklin, B. A., Sanner, B. M., & Vafiadis, D. K. (2011). The power of play: Innovations in Getting Active Summit 2011: a science panel proceedings report from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 123(21), 2507-2516. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0b013e318219661d

Lino, F., Arcangeli, V., & Chieffo, D. P. R. (2021). The virtual challenge: Virtual reality tools for intervention in children with developmental coordination disorder. Children, 8(4), 270. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8040270

Meachon, E. J. (2023). Perspective: Acknowledging complexity to advance the understanding of developmental coordination disorder. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 16, 1082209. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.1082209

Medica, E. M. (2018). Is virtual reality effective in improving the motor performance of children with developmental coordination disorder? A systematic review. Eur. J. Phys. Rehabil. Med, 55, 291-300.

Rohr, C. S., Bray, S. L., & Dewey, D. M. (2023). Functional connectivity based brain signatures of behavioral regulation in children with ADHD, DCD, and ADHD-DCD. Development and Psychopathology, 35(1), 85-94.https://doi.org/ 10.1017/S0954579421001449

Smits-Engelsman, B., & Verbecque, E. (2022). Pediatric care for children with developmental coordination disorder, can we do better?. Biomedical journal, 45(2), 250-264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bj.2021.08.008

Van Dyck, D., Baijot, S., Aeby, A., De Tiège, X., & Deconinck, N. (2022). Cognitive, perceptual, and motor profiles of school-aged children with developmental coordination disorder. Frontiers in psychology, 13, 860766.

Wattad, R., Gabis, L. V., Shefer, S., Tresser, S., & Portnoy, S. (2020). Correlations between performance in a virtual reality game and the movement assessment battery diagnostics in children with developmental coordination disorder. Applied Sciences, 10(3), 833. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10030833

Werden, A., Przysucha, E. P., & Zerpa, C. (2017). Virtual reality active games as a potential tool to enhance movement skills and promote participation in physical activities for children with DCD: Pilot study. Global Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disabilities, 2(5), 146-152.

Zaragas, H., Rogoti, A., Sogias, K., Mike, E., & Ntalagiani, A. (2022). Developmental Coordination Disorders (DCD) and Interactive Games: A Literature Review. International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences [online], 10(6), 1245-1264. https://doi.org/10.13189/SAJ.2022.100616

Henderson, S. E., Sugden, D., & Barnett, A. L. (1992). Movement assessment battery for children-2. Research in developmental disabilities.

Sgrò, F., Monteleone, G., Pavone, M., & Lipoma, M. (2014). Validity analysis of Wii Balance Board versus baropodometer platform using an open custom integrated application. AASRI Procedia, 8, 22-29.

Yatar, G. I., & Yildirim, S. A. (2015). Wii Fit balance training or progressive balance training in patients with chronic stroke: a randomised controlled trial. Journal of physical therapy science, 27(4), 1145-1151.

Chang, W. D., Chang, W. Y., Lee, C. L., & Feng, C. Y. (2013). Validity and reliability of wii fit balance board for the assessment of balance of healthy young adults and the elderly. Journal of physical therapy science, 25(10), 1251-1253.

Kosari, S. , Keyhani, F. , Hemayat talab, R. and Arabameri, E. (2012). Effect of a Selected Physical Activity Program on the Development of Motor Skills in Attention Deficit /Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Autism (HFA) Children. Journal of Sports and Motor Development and Learning, 4(2), 45-60. doi: 10.22059/jmlm.2012.28985

Niknasab, F., Bagherzadeh, F., Sheikh, M., Moghadamzadeh, A., & Hominian, D. (2023). Effectiveness of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) on Visual-Motor Integration in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). Neuropsychology, 9(33), 1-10.

Niknasab, F., Sheikh, M., & HEMAYAT, T. R. (2019). Teaching Neurofeedback on the Symptoms of Children Suffering from Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder.

Journal of Sports and Motor Development and Learning

Volume 18, Issue 1
April 2026

Files

XML

History

Receive Date: 23 April 2025
Revise Date: 19 May 2025
Accept Date: 21 May 2025

Share

How to cite

Statistics

Article View: 794