Journal of Sports and Motor Development and Learning

Scientific Journal

Current Issue

By Issue

By Author

By Subject

Author Index

Keyword Index

About Journal

Aims and Scope

Editorial Board

Peer Review Process

Indexing and Abstracting

FAQ

News

Journal Metrics

Related Links

Open Access Policy

Copyright Policy

Plagiarism policies

Policies related to the archive of articles

Privacy Policy

Financial policies

Reviewers

Publons Membership and Review Guide

The Effect of Equipment Modification on Acquisition and Retention of Motor Skill in 9-10-Year-Old Children with an Emphasis on Working Memory Capacity

Document Type : Research Paper I Open Access I Released under CC BY-NC 4.0 license

Authors

1 Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad-International Campus, Mashhad, Iran

2 Full professor, Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran

3 Associate professor, Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran

4 Assistant professor, Department of Physical Therapy, School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

Abstract

 
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of equipment modification on acquisition and retention of basketball free throw skill in children aged between 9 and 10 with an emphasis on working memory capacity. 40malestudents were randomly selected and divided into 4 groups of modified and standard equipment with high and low working memory capacity based on the Memory for Digit Span assessment by Wechsler. Mini-basketball rules were used as a reference. The acquisition phase included 10 sessions, 4blocks each session and 15 attempts each block. Free throw basketball test (AAHPERD) was conducted as the pretest and acquisition and retention tests were conducted after a week. In the acquisition phase, 2x2x2 multivariate analysis of variance (eqipement×working memory×test) with repeated measures showed that interactive effect between working memory (high and low) and test (pretest and posttest) on performance was significant. Also, interactive effect between equipment (standard and modified) and test (pretest and posttest) on performance was significant while the interactive effect of working memory, equipment and test on performance was not significant. In retention phase, 2x2 multivariate analysis of variance (eqipement×working memory) showed that the main and interactive effect of working memory and equipment on performance was significant. The results showed that the effect of equipment employment in working memory levels on performance was similar in both pretest and posttest and also it seems that the effect of the modified equipment on performance in retention test was better in children with low working memory than children with high working memory.

Keywords

References
  1. Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., & Pickering, S. J. (2006). "Verbal and visuospatial short‐term and working memory in children: Are they separable?" Child development, 77(6), 1698-1716.
  2. Arias, J. L. (2012). "INFLUENCE OF BALL WEIGHT ON SHOT ACCURACY AND EFFICACY AMONG 9-11-YEAR-OLD MALE BASKETBALL PLAYERS". Kinesiology, 44(1).
  3. Arias, J. L., Argudo Iturriaga, F. M., & Alonso, J. I. (2011). "Effect of two different forms of three-point line on game actions on girls’ mini-basketball". South African Journal for Research in Sport, Physical Education and Recreation.
  4. Berry, D. C., & Broadbent, D. E. (1988). "Interactive tasks and the implicit‐explicit distinction". British journal of Psychology, 79(2), 251-272.
  5. Buszard, T., Farrow, D., Reid, M., & Masters, R. S. "(2014). Scaling sporting equipment for children promotes implicit processes during performance". Consciousness and cognition, 30, 247-255.
  6. Capio, C., Poolton, J., Sit, C., Holmstrom, M., & Masters, R. (2013). "Reducing errors benefits the field‐based learning of a fundamental movement skill in children". Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 23(2), 181-188.
  7. Capio, C. M., Sit, C. H., Abernethy, B., & Masters, R. S. (2012). "The possible benefits of reduced errors in the motor skills acquisition of children". BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation, 4(1), 1.
  8. Chase, M. A., Ewing, M. E., Lirgg, C. D., & George, T. R. (1994)." The effects of equipment modification on children's self-i and basketball shooting performance". Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 65(2), 159-168.
  9. Chauvel, G., Maquestiaux, F., Hartley, A. A., Joubert, S., Didierjean, A., & Masters, R. S. (2012). "Age effects shrink when motor learning is predominantly supported by nondeclarative, automatic memory processes: Evidence from golf putting". The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65(1), 25-38.
  10. Davids, K. W., Button, C., & Bennett, S. J. (2008). "Dynamics of skill acquisition: A constraints-led approach": Human Kinetics.
  11. Elliott, B. (1981). "Tennis racquet selection: A factor in early skill development". Australian Journal of Sport Sciences, 1(1), 23-25.
  12. Engle, R. W., Carullo, J. J., & Collins, K. W. (1991)." Individual differences in working memory for comprehension and following directions". The Journal of Educational Research, 84(5), 253-262.
  13. Evans, J. (1980). "Objectivity and game modification: The next step. Australian Journal for Health", Physical Education, and Recreation, 89, 13-17.
  14. Farrow, D., Pyne, D., & Gabbett, T. (2008). "Skill and physiological demands of open and closed training drills in Australian football". International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 3(4), 489-499.
  15. Farrow, D., & Reid, M. (2010). "The effect of equipment scaling on the skill acquisition of beginning tennis players". Journal of Sports Sciences, 28(7), 723-732.
  16. Gathercole, S. E., Durling, E., Evans, M., Jeffcock, S., & Stone, S. (2008). "Working memory abilities and children's performance in laboratory analogues of classroom activities". Applied Cognitive Psychology, 22(8), 1019-1037.
  17. Gathercole, S. E., Pickering, S. J., Ambridge, B., & Wearing, H. (2004)." The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age". Developmental psychology, 40(2), 177.
  18. Grawer, R., & Rains, S. T. (1997). "Youth basketball skills and drills:" Coaches Choice Books.
  19. Groth-MarnatG. (2005). "Handbook of psychological assessment". Translated By sharifiP, Nikkoo H. Tehran:Sokhan Published.(Persian).
  20. Hammond, J., & Smith, C. (2006). "Low compression tennis balls and skill development". Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 5, 575-581.
  21. Hanlon, T. W. (2006). "Absolute beginner's guide to coaching youth basketball: "Que Pub.
  22. Hardy, L., Mullen, R., & Jones, G. (1996). "Knowledge and conscious control of motor actions under stress". British Journal of Psychology, 87(4), 621-636.
  23. Howard, D. V., & Howard, J. H. (2001). "When it does hurt to try: Adult age differences in the effects of instructions on implicit pattern learning". Psychonomic bulletin & review, 8(4), 798-805.
  24. Isaacs, L., & Karpman, M. (1981). "Factors effecting children’s basketball shooting performance: A log-linear analysis". Carnegie School of Physical Education and Human Movement, 1, 29-32.
  25. Kane, M. J., Brown, L. H., McVay, J. C., Silvia, P. J., Myin-Germeys, I., & Kwapil, T. R. (2007). "For whom the mind wanders, and when an experience-sampling study of working memory and executive control in daily life". Psychological science, 18(7), 614-621.
  26. Kirk†, D. (2004). "Framing quality physical education: the elite sport model or Sport Education?" Physical Education & Sport Pedagogy, 9(2), 185-195.
  27. Lam, W., Maxwell, J., & Masters, R. (2009). "Analogy versus explicit learning of a modified basketball shooting task: Performance and kinematic outcomes." Journal of Sports Sciences, 27(2), 179-191.
  28. Liao, C.-M., & Masters, R. S. (2001). "Analogy learning: A means to implicit motor learning". Journal of sports sciences, 19(5), 307-319.
  29. Liu, W. (2003). "Field dependence-independence and sports with a preponderance of closed or open skill". Journal of Sport Behavior, 26(3), 285.
  30. López, M. I. P. (2005). "Incidencia del cambio de un conjunto de reglas de juego sobre algunas de las variables que determinan el proceso de formación de los jugadores de minibasket (9-11 años)": Editorial de la Universidad de Granada.
  31. Luciana, M., Conklin, H. M., Hooper, C. J., & Yarger, R. S. (2005)." The development of nonverbal working memory and executive control processes in adolescents". Child development, 76(3), 697-712.
  32. Masters, R., Poolton, J., & Maxwell, J. (2008). "Stable implicitmotor processes despite aerobic locomotor fatigue". Consciousness and Cognition, 17(1), 335-338.
  33. Masters, R. S. (1992). "Knowledge, knerves and know‐how: The role of explicit versus implicit knowledge in the breakdown of a complex motor skill under pressure". British journal of psychology, 83(3), 343-358.
  34. Masters, R. S., MacMahon, K., & Pall, H. S. (2004). "Implicit Motor Learning in Parkinson's Disease". Rehabilitation Psychology, 49(1), 79.
  35. Masters, R. S., & Poolton, J. M. (2012). "Advances in implicitmotor learning". Skill acquisition in sport: Research, theory and practice, 59.
  36. Maxwell, J., Masters, R., Kerr, E., & Weedon, E. (2001). "The implicit benefit of learning without errors". The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Section A, 54(4), 1049-1068.
  37. Movahedi, A., Sheikh, M., Bagherzadeh, F., Hemayattalab, R., & Ashayeri, H. (2007)." A practice-specificity-based model of arousal for achieving peak performance". Journal of motor behavior, 39(6), 457-462.
  38. Mullen, R., Hardy, L., & Oldham, A.(2007)"Implicit and explicit control of motor actions: revisiting some early evidence". British Journal of Psychology, 98(1), 141-156.
  39. Orlick, T., & Botterill, C. (1975). "Every kid can win: Taylor Trade Publications".
  40. Orrell, A. J., Eves, F. F., & Masters, R. S. (2006). "Motor learning of a dynamic balancing task after stroke: implicit implications for stroke rehabilitation". Physical Therapy, 86(3), 369-380.
  41. Palao, J. M., Ortega, E., & Olmedilla, A. (2004). "Technical and tactical preferences among basketball players in formative years. Paper presented at the Iberian Congress on Basketball Research"
  42. Piñar, M. I., Cárdenas, D., Conde, J., Alarcón, F., & Torre, E. (2007)." Satisfaction in mini-basketball players. Paper presented at the Iberian Congress on Basketball Research".
  43. Poolton, J., Masters, R., & Maxwell, J. (2007)." Passing thoughts on the evolutionary stability of implicit motor behaviour: Performance retention under physiological fatigue". Consciousness and Cognition, 16(2), 456-468.
  44. Reber, A. S. (1992a)." The cognitive unconscious: An evolutionary perspective". Consciousness and cognition, 1(2), 93-133.
  45. Reber, A. S. (1992b). "An evolutionary context for the cognitive unconscious". Philosophical Psychology, 5(1), 33-51.
  46. Regimbal, C., Deller, J., & Plimpton, C. (1992)." Basketball size as related to children's preference, rated skill, and scoring". Perceptual and Motor Skills, 75(3), 867-872.
  47. Renshaw, I., Davids, K., & Savelsbergh, G. J. (2010). "Motor learning in practice": A constraints-led approach: Routledge.
  48. Satern, M., Messier, S., & KELLERMCNULTY, S. (1989). "The effect of ball size and basket height on the mechanics of the basketball free throw". Journal of Human Movement Studies, 16(3), 123-137.
  49. Steenbergen, B., van der Kamp, J., Verneau, M., Jongbloed-Pereboom, M., & Masters, R. S. (2010)." Implicit and explicit learning: applications from basic research to sports for individuals with impaired movement dynamics". Disability and rehabilitation, 32(18), 1509-1516.
  50. Thomason, M. E., Race, E., Burrows, B., Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., Glover, G. H., & Gabrieli, J. D. (2009)."Development of spatial and verbal working memory capacity in the human brain". Journal of cognitive neuroscience, 21(2), 316-332.
  51. Timmerman, E., De Water, J., Kachel, K., Reid, M., Farrow, D., & Savelsbergh, G. (2015)." The effect of equipment scaling on children’s sport performance:" the case for tennis. Journal of sports sciences, 33(10), 1093-1100.
Journal of Sports and Motor Development and Learning
Volume 9, Issue 2 - Serial Number 2
August 2017
Pages 199-218
Files
History
  • Receive Date: 03 October 2016
  • Revise Date: 19 February 2017
  • Accept Date: 26 February 2017
Share
How to cite
Statistics