Document Type : Research Paper I Open Access I Released under CC BY-NC 4.0 license

Authors

1 MSc in Motor Behavior, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran

2 Assistant Professor, Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran

Abstract

The use of attention instructions type is one of the most important variables in the process of motor skill learning. The aim of this study was to examine the combined effects of attention instruction type feedback, and autonomy on children's motor learning. For this purpose thirty-six children (M±SD 7.05 ± 0.45 years) were asked to perform a bowling task with their dominant hand. They divided into 3 groups (external focus, the internal focus of attention, and control). Participants in the acquisition phase practiced tasks in a counterbalanced order based on feedback and choice (Autonomy) conditions and after 24 hours they take part in retention test without feedback and instructional attention and autonomy .The acquisition phase in each condition(1-without feedback and autonomy,2-with feedback,3- with autonomy,4-with feedback, and autonomy). The data were analyzed by ANOVA and ANCOVA. The results of the retention phase showed that the type of attention focus without feedback and autonomy had a greater bowling accuracy and the external focus of attention with autonomy was better than other conditions. The present study did not show the beneficial effects of attention instruction type feedback, and autonomy on children's motor learning.The results showed that motor learning in children was different from adults.Based on our results in children external attention focus and feedback with autonomy have not similar effects with adult motor learning.

Keywords

1.   Emanuel M, Jarus T, Bart O. Effect of focus of attention and age on motor acquisition, retention, and transfer: a randomized trial. Phys Ther. 2008;88(2):251–60.
2.Poolton JM, Maxwell J, Masters R, Raab M. Benefits of an external focus of attention: Common coding or conscious processing? J Sports Sci. 2006;24(1):89–99.
3.Pascua LA, Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. Additive benefits of external focus and enhanced performance expectancy for motor learning. J Sports Sci. 2015;33(1):58–66.
4.Emanuel M, Jarus T, Bart O. Effect of focus of attention and age on motor acquisition, retention, and transfer: a randomized trial. Phys Ther. 2008;88(2):251–60.
5.Lawrence GP, Gottwald VM, Hardy J, Khan MA. Internal and external focus of attention in a novice form sport. Res Q Exerc Sport Wiss. 2011;82(3):431–41.
6.Schücker L, Knopf C, Strauss B, Hagemann N. An internal focus of attention is not always as bad as its reputation: How specific aspects of internally focused attention do not hinder running efficiency. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2014;36(3):233–43.
7.Petranek LJ, Bolter ND, Bell K. Attentional Focus and Feedback Frequency Among First Graders in Physical Education. J Teach Phys Educ. 2018; (00):1–8.
8.Wulf G, Höß M, Prinz W. Instructions for motor learning: Differential effects of internal versus external focus of attention. J Mot Behav. 1998;30(2):169–79.
9.Wulf G. Attentional focus and motor learning: a review of 15 years. Int Rev Sport Exerc Psychol. 2013;6(1):77–104.
10.Wulf G, McNevin N, Shea CH. The automaticity of complex motor skill learning as a function of attentional focus. Q J Exp Psychol Sect A. 2001;54(4):1143–54.
11.Kal E, Van der Kamp J, Houdijk H. External attentional focus enhances movement automatization: A comprehensive test of the constrained action hypothesis. Hum Mov Sci. 2013;32(4):527–39.
12.Badami R, VaezMousavi M, Wulf G, Namazizadeh M. Feedback about more accurate versus less accurate trials: Differential effects on self-confidence and activation. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2012;83(2):196–203.
13.Saemi E, Wulf G, Varzaneh AG, Zarghami M. Feedback after good versus poor trials enhances motor learning in children. Rev Bras Educ Física E Esporte. 2011;25(4):673–81.
14.Janelle CM, Barba DA, Frehlich SG, Tennant LK, Cauraugh JH. Maximizing performance feedback effectiveness through videotape replay and a self-controlled learning environment.Res Q Exerc Sport. 1997;68(4):269–79.
15.Wulf G, Chiviacowsky S, Cardozo PL. Additive benefits of autonomy support and enhanced expectancies for motor learning. Hum Mov Sci. 2014;37:12–20.
16.Hartman JM. Self-controlled use of a perceived physical assistance device during a balancing task.Percept Mot Skills. 2007;104(3):1005–16.
17.Post PG, Fairbrother JT, Barros JA, Kulpa J. Self-controlled practice within a fixed time period facilitates the learning of a basketball set shot. J Mot Learn Dev. 2014;2(1):9–15.
18.Wulf G, Raupach M, Pfeiffer F. Self-controlled observational practice enhances learning. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2005;76(1):107–11.
19.Shea CH, Wulf G. Enhancing motor learning through external-focus instructions and feedback. Hum Mov Sci. 1999;18(4):553–71.
20.Jalali A, Rafiee S. Comparison of feedback with the focus (internal and external) on learning weightlifting skills. In 2016.
21.Abdollahipour R, Nieto MP, Psotta R, Wulf G. External focus of attention and autonomy support have additive benefits for motor performance in children. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2017;32:17–24.
22.Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. Psychon Bull Rev. 2016;23(5):1382–414.
23.Wulf G, Lewthwaite R, Cardozo P, Chiviacowsky S. Triple play: Additive contributions of enhanced expectancies, autonomy support, and external attentional focus to motor learning. Q J Exp Psychol. 2018;71(4):824–31.
24.Schmidt RA. Frequent augmented feedback can degrade learning: Evidence and interpretations. In: Tutorials in motor neuroscience. Springer; 1991. p. 59–75.
25.Rozbehani M, Vaezmosavi K, Khalaji H. The effect of age and three different feedback methods on learning a hand movement pattern.Res Sports Manag Mot Behav Mot Sci Sports. 2014;4(7):1–16.
26.Thorn JE. Using attentional strategies for balance performance and learning in nine through 12 year olds. Florida State University; 2006.
27.Hadler R, Chiviacowsky S, Wulf G, Schild JFG. Children’s learning of tennis skills is facilitated by external focus instructions. Mot Rev Educ Física. 2014;20(4):418–22.
28.Flores FS, Schild JG, Chiviacowsky S. Benefits of external focus instructions on the learning of a balance task in children of different ages. Int J Sport Psychol. 2015;46(4):311–20.
29.Palmer KK, Matsuyama AL, Irwin JM, Porter JM, Robinson LE. The effect of attentional focus cues on object control performance in elementary children. Phys Educ Sport Pedagogy. 2017;22(6):580–8.
30.Roshandel S, Taheri H, Moghadam A. Do Children Benefit External Focus of Attention as Much as Adults? A Motor Learning Study. Mod Appl Sci. 2017;11(7):85.
31.Wulf G. Attention and motor skill learning. 1 edition.department of kinesiology university of nevada: Human Kinetics; 2007a. 211 p.
32.Wulf G, Lewthwaite R. Effortless motor learning? An external focus of attention enhances movement effectiveness and efficiency. Effortless Atten New Perspect Atten Action. 2010;75–101.
33.moghadam A, JabarNoghabi A. The effect of attention instruction type and age on the acquisition, transfer and retention of dart throwing skills. Mashhad Ferdowsi University; 2010.
34.Yan JH, Thomas JR, Stelmach GE, Thomas KT. Developmental features of rapid aiming arm movements across the lifespan. J Mot Behav. 2000;32(2):121–40.
35.Lewthwaite R, Wulf G. Social-comparative feedback affects motor skill learning. Q J Exp Psychol Sect A. 2010;63(4):738–49.
36.Abdoli B, Farokhi A, Shamsipoor Dehkordi P, Shams A. The effect of internal and external attention through feedback and instructions on learning dynamic balance.Mot Behav. 2012;11:63–80.
37.Jalali A, Rafiee S. Comparison of feedback with the focus (internal and external) on learning weightlifting skills. In 2016.
38.Levac DE, Lu AS. Does Narrative Feedback Enhance Children’s Motor Learning in a Virtual Environment? J Mot Behav. 2019;51(2):199–211.
39.Proteau L, Marteniuk RG, Girouard Y, Dugas C. On the type of information used to control and learn an aiming movement after moderate and extensive training. Hum Mov Sci. 1987;6(2):181–99.
40.Salmoni AW, Schmidt RA, Walter CB. Knowledge of Results and Motor Learning: A Review and Critical Reappraisal. Psychol Bull. 1984;95(3):355.
41.Wulf G, Chiviacowsky S, Drews R. External focus and autonomy support: Two important factors in motor learning have additive benefits. Hum Mov Sci. 2015;40:176–84.
42.Hosseini L, Shojaee M, Aslankhani M. The effect of self-regulation and distance of the center of external attention on learning badminton service in young girls. Res J Mot Behav Al-Zahra Univ. 2013;1(1):1–10.
43.Lemos A, Wulf G, Lewthwaite R, Chiviacowsky S. Autonomy support enhances performance expectancies, positive affect, and motor learning. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2017;31:28–34.
44.McGraw KO. The detrimental effects of reward on performance: A literature review and a prediction model. Hidden Costs Reward New Perspect Psychol Hum Motiv. 1978;33–60.
45.Koestner R, Losier GF, Vallerand RJ, Carducci D. Identified and introjected forms of political internalization: Extending self-determination theory. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1996;70(5):1025.
46.Krajenbrink H, van Abswoude F, Vermeulen S, van Cappellen S, Steenbergen B. Motor learning and movement automatization in typically developing children: The role of instructions with an external or internal focus of attention. Hum Mov Sci. 2018;60:183–90.
47.Kim W, Chang Y, Kim J, Seo J, Ryu K, Lee E, et al. An fMRI study of differences in brain activity among elite, expert, and novice archers at the moment of optimal aiming. Cogn Behav Neurol. 2014;27(4):173–82.