Document Type : Research Paper I Open Access I Released under CC BY-NC 4.0 license
Authors
1 Department of sport psychology, faculty of sport sciences, University of Tehran
2 Department of Sports Science, Faculty of Basic Sciences, Imam Ali Officers' University, Tehran, Iran.
3 Department of Sports Science, Faculty of Basic Sciences, Imam Ali Officers' University, Tehran, Iran.
Abstract
Introduction: The mental appraisal and athlete's ability to deal with stressful factors affect the development of negative emotional states and anxiety. Considering the impact of stress and related psychological responses on performance, interventions that reduce stress and may thus increase athletic performance need to be investigated.
This study aimed to determine the effect of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) on psychological choking, fear of failure, and shooting performance underpressure in students of Imam Ali Officers’ University.
Methods: This quasi-experimental study was conducted with a pre-test and post-test design that includes a control and an experimental group. Forty students of Imam Ali Officers' University participated in this study. In the pre-test and post-test, the fearof failure and psychological choking questionnaires and also shooting performance tests were used. The tDCS was applied for 20 minutes with an intensity of 2 mA overthe dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) region for 10 sessions. Data were analyzed using univariate repeated measures ANOVA test.
Results: The results showed that tDCS over DLPFC could reduce psychological choking under pressure but could not change the fear of failure. The results also showed that tDCS can increase shooting performance under pressure.
Conclusion: In general, it can be concluded that tDCS probably increase performance-related indicators in high-pressure military environments. However, more studies are needed to find the underlying mechanisms.
Keywords
Abdoli, B., Ahmadi, N., Azimzadeh, E., & Afshari, J. (2013). To Determine the Validity and Reliability of
Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory. Journal of Motor Learning and Movement, 5(2 (12)), 37-48.
doi:10.22059/jmlm.2013.32146.(In Persian)
Amini, A., & Vaezmousavi, M. (2021). The Effect of Transcranial Electrical Stimulation on Athletic Performance
Optimization: Systematic review, Meta-Analysis, and Proposing a Theoretical Model. The Neuroscience Journal
of Shefaye Khatam, 9 (4) :81-104. (In Persian)
Antonenko, D., Schubert, F., Bohm, F., Ittermann, B., Aydin, S., Hayek, D., . . . Flöel, A. (2017). tDCSinduced modulation of GABA levels and resting-state functional connectivity in older adults. Journal of
Neuroscience, 37(15), 4065-4073.
Barbas, H., & Zikopoulos, B. (2007). The prefrontal cortex and flexible behavior. The Neuroscientist, 13(5),
532-545.
Baumeister, R. F. (1984). Choking under pressure: self-consciousness and paradoxical effects of incentives on
skillful performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(3), 610.
Baxter, B. S., Edelman, B. J., Nesbitt, N., & He, B. (2016). Sensorimotor rhythm BCI with simultaneous high
definition-transcranial direct current stimulation alters task performance. Brain stimulation, 9(6), 834-841.
1. Thair 2. Morya 3 Viviani
96 رشد و یادگیری حرکتی دورزشی، دورة چهاردهم، شمارة چهارم، زم ستان 1401
Beilock, S. L., & Carr, T. H. (2005). When high-powered people fail: Working memory and “choking under
pressure” in math. Psychological science, 16(2), 101-105.
Boudewyn, M., Roberts, B. M., Mizrak, E., Ranganath, C., & Carter, C. S. (2019). Prefrontal transcranial direct
current stimulation (tDCS) enhances behavioral and EEG markers of proactive control. Cognitive
neuroscience, 10(2), 57-65.
Brunoni, A. R., Nitsche, M. A., Bolognini, N., Bikson, M., Wagner, T., Merabet, L., . . . Pascual-Leone, A.
(2012). Clinical research with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): challenges and future
directions. Brain stimulation, 5(3), 175-195.
Brunoni, A. R., Vanderhasselt, M.-A., Boggio, P. S., Fregni, F., Dantas, E. M., Mill, J. G., . . . Benseñor, I. M.
(2013). Polarity-and valence-dependent effects of prefrontal transcranial direct current stimulation on heart
rate variability and salivary cortisol. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 38(1), 58-66.
Budish, E., Che, Y.-K., Kojima, F., & Milgrom, P. (2013). Designing random allocation mechanisms: Theory
and applications. American economic review, 103(2), 585-623.
Carnevali, L., Pattini, E., Sgoifo, A., & Ottaviani, C. (2020). Effects of prefrontal transcranial direct current
stimulation on autonomic and neuroendocrine responses to psychosocial stress in healthy humans. Stress,
23(1), 26-36.
Chan, M. M., Yau, S. S., & Han, Y. M. (2021). The neurobiology of prefrontal transcranial direct current
stimulation (tDCS) in promoting brain plasticity: A systematic review and meta-analyses of human and
rodent studies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews.
Clarke, P. J., Browning, M., Hammond, G., Notebaert, L., & MacLeod, C. (2014). The causal role of the
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in the modification of attentional bias: evidence from transcranial direct
current stimulation. Biological psychiatry, 76(12), 946-952.
Conroy, D. E., Willow, J. P., & Metzler, J. N. (2002). Multidimensional fear of failure measurement: The
performance failure appraisal inventory. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14(2), 76-90.
Coreia, M. E., Rosado, A., Serpa, S., & Ferreira, V. (2017). Fear of failure in athletes: Gender, age and type
of sport differences. Revista iberoamericana de psicología del ejercicio y el deporte, 12(2), 185-193.
de Moura, M. C. D. S., Hazime, F. A., Marotti Aparicio, L. V., Grecco, L. A., Brunoni, A. R., & Hasue, R. H.
(2019). Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on balance improvement: A systematic
review and meta-analysis. Somatosensory & motor research, 36(2), 122-135.
De Witte, S., Klooster, D., Dedoncker, J., Duprat, R., Remue, J., & Baeken, C. (2018). Left prefrontal
neuronavigated electrode localization in tDCS: 10–20 EEG system versus MRI-guided neuronavigation.
Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 274, 1-6.
Eslamizade, M. J., Behbahanian, S., Mahdavi, S. M., & Oftadehal, M. (2016). An introduction to
neurotechnologies, transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation: Their
applications in the cognitive enhancement and rehabilitation. The Neuroscience Journal of Shefaye Khatam,
4(2), 65-86. (In Persian)
Faber, M., Vanneste, S., Fregni, F., & De Ridder, D. (2012). Top down prefrontal affective modulation of
tinnitus with multiple sessions of tDCS of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Brain stimulation, 5(4), 492-498.
Feltman, K. A., Hayes, A. M., Bernhardt, K. A., Nwala, E., & Kelley, A. M. (2020). Viability of tDCS in
military environments for performance enhancement: A systematic review. Military medicine, 185(1-2),
e53-e60.
Flöel, A. (2014). tDCS-enhanced motor and cognitive function in neurological diseases. NeuroImage, 85, 934-
947. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.05.098
Gandiga, P. C., Hummel, F. C., & Cohen, L. G. (2006). Transcranial DC stimulation (tDCS): a tool for doubleblind sham-controlled clinical studies in brain stimulation. Clinical Neurophysiology, 117(4), 845-850.
Giordano, J., Bikson, M., Kappenman, E. S., Clark, V. P., Coslett, H. B., Hamblin, M. R., . . . McKinley, R.
A. (2017). Mechanisms and effects of transcranial direct current stimulation. Dose-Response, 15(1),
1559325816685467.
Goodarzi, N., Nosratabadi, M., & Ahmadi, H. (2019). The Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation
(tDCS) on Attention and Shooting Performance in Shooters. Journal of Biochemical Technology, (2): 140-
144. (In Persian)
Ikeda, T., Takahashi, T., Hiraishi, H., Saito, D. N., & Kikuchi, M. (2019). Anodal transcranial direct current
stimulation induces high gamma-band activity in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during a working
memory task: a double-blind, randomized, crossover study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13, 136.
Ironside, M., O’Shea, J., Cowen, P. J., & Harmer, C. J. (2016). Frontal cortex stimulation reduces vigilance to
threat: implications for the treatment of depression and anxiety. Biological psychiatry, 79(10), 823-830.
Jackson, C. (2017). Fear of failure Understanding Learning and Motivation in Youth (pp. 30-39): Routledge.
Kamali, A.-M., Nami, M., Yahyavi, S.-S., Saadi, Z. K., & Mohammadi, A. (2019). Transcranial Direct Current
Stimulation to Assist Experienced Pistol Shooters in Gaining Even-Better Performance Scores. The
Cerebellum, 18(1), 119-127. doi:10.1007/s12311-018-0967-9
Kolasinski, J., Hinson, E. L., Zand, A. P. D., Rizov, A., Emir, U. E., & Stagg, C. J. (2019). The dynamics of
cortical GABA in human motor learning. The Journal of Physiology, 597(1), 271-282.
Lefaucheur, J.-P., Antal, A., Ayache, S. S., Benninger, D. H., Brunelin, J., Cogiamanian, F., . . . Langguth, B.
(2017). Evidence-based guidelines on the therapeutic use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS).
Clinical Neurophysiology, 128(1), 56-92.
Lewis, B. P., & Linder, D. E. (1997). Thinking about choking? Attentional processes and paradoxical
performance. Personality and social psychology bulletin, 23(9), 937-944.
Mehrsafar, A. H., & Gazerani, P. (2019). Non-invasive brain stimulation in athletic competition. Apunts Sports
Medicine, 54(203), 105-106.
Mehrsafar, A. H., Rosa, M. A. S., Zadeh, A. M., & Gazerani, P. (2020). A feasibility study of application and
potential effects of a single session transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on competitive anxiety,
mood state, salivary levels of cortisol and alpha amylase in elite athletes under a real-world competition.
Physiology & Behavior, 227, 113173.
Mellalieu, S. D., Hanton, S., & Fletcher, D. (2006). A competitive anxiety review: Recent directions in sport
psychology research. Literature reviews in sport psychology, 1-45.
Mesagno, C., & Beckmann, J. (2017). Choking under pressure: theoretical models and interventions. Current
opinion in psychology, 16, 170-175.
Morya, E., Monte-Silva, K., Bikson, M., Esmaeilpour, Z., Biazoli, C. E., Fonseca, A., . . . Hausdorff, J. M.
(2019). Beyond the target area: an integrative view of tDCS-induced motor cortex modulation in patients
and athletes. Journal of neuroengineering and rehabilitation, 16(1), 1-29.
Murayama, T., Sekiya, H., & Tanaka, Y. (2010). Factor analysis of the mechanisms underlying “choking under
pressure” in sports. Asian Journal of Exercise & Sports Science, 7(1), 55-60.
Nelson, J., McKinley, R. A., Phillips, C., McIntire, L., Goodyear, C., Kreiner, A., & Monforton, L. (2016).
The effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on multitasking throughput capacity. Frontiers
in Human Neuroscience, 10, 589.
Notzon, S., Steinberg, C., Zwanzger, P., & Junghöfer, M. (2018). Modulating emotion perception: opposing
effects of inhibitory and excitatory prefrontal cortex stimulation. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive
Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 3(4), 329-336.
Pelletier, S. J., & Cicchetti, F. (2015). Cellular and molecular mechanisms of action of transcranial direct
current stimulation: evidence from in vitro and in vivo models. International Journal of
Neuropsychopharmacology, 18(2), pyu047.
ra Lee, B., min Nam, S., & ho Cho, I. (2018). Performance Improvement by One-Time Transcranial Direct
Current Stimulation (tDCS) of National Rifle Shooting Athletes. Seoul Olympic International Sports Science
Conference. 88, 342-342.
Rocha, K., Marinho, V., Magalhães, F., Carvalho, V., Fernandes, T., Ayres, M., . . . Cagy, M. (2020). Unskilled
shooters improve both accuracy and grouping shot having as reference skilled shooters cortical area: An
EEG and tDCS study. Physiology & Behavior, 224, 113036.
Sagar, S. S., Busch, B. K., & Jowett, S. (2010). Success and failure, fear of failure, and coping responses of
adolescent academy football players. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 22(2), 213-230.
Sattizahn, J. R., Moser, J. S., & Beilock, S. L. (2016). A closer look at who “chokes under pressure”. Journal
of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 5(4), 470-477.
Sotres-Bayon, F., Cain, C. K., & LeDoux, J. E. (2006). Brain mechanisms of fear extinction: historical
perspectives on the contribution of prefrontal cortex. Biological psychiatry, 60(4), 329-336.
Spielberger, C. D. (2013). Anxiety and behavior: Academic Press.
Tabachnick, B. G., Fidell, L. S., & Ullman, J. B. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (Vol. 5): Pearson Boston,
MA.
Thair, H., Holloway, A. L., Newport, R., & Smith, A. D. (2017). Transcranial direct current stimulation
(tDCS): a beginner's guide for design and implementation. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 11, 641.
Torabi, F., & Mortazaeedarsara, Z. (2022). The Effect of Direct Brain Electrical Stimulation on Concentration
and the Record of Pistol Shooter. Journal of Sports and Motor Development and , 13(4), 407-425. doi:
10.22059/jmlm.2021.328654.1601. (In Persian)
Van Schuerbeek, A., Pierre, A., Vanderhasselt, M., Pedron, S., Van Waes, V., & De Bundel, D. (2019). Fear
modulation by transcranial direct current stimulation. Brain Stimulation: Basic, Translational, and Clinical
Research in Neuromodulation, 12(2), 572.
Viviani, R. (2014). Neural correlates of emotion regulation in the ventral prefrontal cortex and the encoding
of subjective value and economic utility. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 5, 123.
Wang, B., Xiao, S., Yu, C., Zhou, J., & Fu, W. (2021). Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation
Combined With Physical Training on the Excitability of the Motor Cortex, Physical Performance, and
Motor Learning: A Systematic Review. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 15, 336.
Yosephi, M. H., Ehsani, F., Daghiani, M., Zoghi, M., & Jaberzadeh, S. (2019). The effects of trans-cranial
direct current stimulation intervention on fear: A systematic review of literature. Journal of Clinical
Neuroscience, 62, 7-13. (In Persian)
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decrements. Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, 9, 19.
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encyclopedia of psychology.
Zhou, D., Zhou, J., Chen, H., Manor, B., Lin, J., & Zhang, J. (2015). Effects of transcranial direct current
stimulation (tDCS) on multiscale complexity of dual-task postural control in older adults. Experimental
Brain Research, 233(8), 2401-2409.
Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory. Journal of Motor Learning and Movement, 5(2 (12)), 37-48.
doi:10.22059/jmlm.2013.32146.(In Persian)
Amini, A., & Vaezmousavi, M. (2021). The Effect of Transcranial Electrical Stimulation on Athletic Performance
Optimization: Systematic review, Meta-Analysis, and Proposing a Theoretical Model. The Neuroscience Journal
of Shefaye Khatam, 9 (4) :81-104. (In Persian)
Antonenko, D., Schubert, F., Bohm, F., Ittermann, B., Aydin, S., Hayek, D., . . . Flöel, A. (2017). tDCSinduced modulation of GABA levels and resting-state functional connectivity in older adults. Journal of
Neuroscience, 37(15), 4065-4073.
Barbas, H., & Zikopoulos, B. (2007). The prefrontal cortex and flexible behavior. The Neuroscientist, 13(5),
532-545.
Baumeister, R. F. (1984). Choking under pressure: self-consciousness and paradoxical effects of incentives on
skillful performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(3), 610.
Baxter, B. S., Edelman, B. J., Nesbitt, N., & He, B. (2016). Sensorimotor rhythm BCI with simultaneous high
definition-transcranial direct current stimulation alters task performance. Brain stimulation, 9(6), 834-841.
1. Thair 2. Morya 3 Viviani
96 رشد و یادگیری حرکتی دورزشی، دورة چهاردهم، شمارة چهارم، زم ستان 1401
Beilock, S. L., & Carr, T. H. (2005). When high-powered people fail: Working memory and “choking under
pressure” in math. Psychological science, 16(2), 101-105.
Boudewyn, M., Roberts, B. M., Mizrak, E., Ranganath, C., & Carter, C. S. (2019). Prefrontal transcranial direct
current stimulation (tDCS) enhances behavioral and EEG markers of proactive control. Cognitive
neuroscience, 10(2), 57-65.
Brunoni, A. R., Nitsche, M. A., Bolognini, N., Bikson, M., Wagner, T., Merabet, L., . . . Pascual-Leone, A.
(2012). Clinical research with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): challenges and future
directions. Brain stimulation, 5(3), 175-195.
Brunoni, A. R., Vanderhasselt, M.-A., Boggio, P. S., Fregni, F., Dantas, E. M., Mill, J. G., . . . Benseñor, I. M.
(2013). Polarity-and valence-dependent effects of prefrontal transcranial direct current stimulation on heart
rate variability and salivary cortisol. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 38(1), 58-66.
Budish, E., Che, Y.-K., Kojima, F., & Milgrom, P. (2013). Designing random allocation mechanisms: Theory
and applications. American economic review, 103(2), 585-623.
Carnevali, L., Pattini, E., Sgoifo, A., & Ottaviani, C. (2020). Effects of prefrontal transcranial direct current
stimulation on autonomic and neuroendocrine responses to psychosocial stress in healthy humans. Stress,
23(1), 26-36.
Chan, M. M., Yau, S. S., & Han, Y. M. (2021). The neurobiology of prefrontal transcranial direct current
stimulation (tDCS) in promoting brain plasticity: A systematic review and meta-analyses of human and
rodent studies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews.
Clarke, P. J., Browning, M., Hammond, G., Notebaert, L., & MacLeod, C. (2014). The causal role of the
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in the modification of attentional bias: evidence from transcranial direct
current stimulation. Biological psychiatry, 76(12), 946-952.
Conroy, D. E., Willow, J. P., & Metzler, J. N. (2002). Multidimensional fear of failure measurement: The
performance failure appraisal inventory. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14(2), 76-90.
Coreia, M. E., Rosado, A., Serpa, S., & Ferreira, V. (2017). Fear of failure in athletes: Gender, age and type
of sport differences. Revista iberoamericana de psicología del ejercicio y el deporte, 12(2), 185-193.
de Moura, M. C. D. S., Hazime, F. A., Marotti Aparicio, L. V., Grecco, L. A., Brunoni, A. R., & Hasue, R. H.
(2019). Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on balance improvement: A systematic
review and meta-analysis. Somatosensory & motor research, 36(2), 122-135.
De Witte, S., Klooster, D., Dedoncker, J., Duprat, R., Remue, J., & Baeken, C. (2018). Left prefrontal
neuronavigated electrode localization in tDCS: 10–20 EEG system versus MRI-guided neuronavigation.
Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 274, 1-6.
Eslamizade, M. J., Behbahanian, S., Mahdavi, S. M., & Oftadehal, M. (2016). An introduction to
neurotechnologies, transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation: Their
applications in the cognitive enhancement and rehabilitation. The Neuroscience Journal of Shefaye Khatam,
4(2), 65-86. (In Persian)
Faber, M., Vanneste, S., Fregni, F., & De Ridder, D. (2012). Top down prefrontal affective modulation of
tinnitus with multiple sessions of tDCS of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Brain stimulation, 5(4), 492-498.
Feltman, K. A., Hayes, A. M., Bernhardt, K. A., Nwala, E., & Kelley, A. M. (2020). Viability of tDCS in
military environments for performance enhancement: A systematic review. Military medicine, 185(1-2),
e53-e60.
Flöel, A. (2014). tDCS-enhanced motor and cognitive function in neurological diseases. NeuroImage, 85, 934-
947. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.05.098
Gandiga, P. C., Hummel, F. C., & Cohen, L. G. (2006). Transcranial DC stimulation (tDCS): a tool for doubleblind sham-controlled clinical studies in brain stimulation. Clinical Neurophysiology, 117(4), 845-850.
Giordano, J., Bikson, M., Kappenman, E. S., Clark, V. P., Coslett, H. B., Hamblin, M. R., . . . McKinley, R.
A. (2017). Mechanisms and effects of transcranial direct current stimulation. Dose-Response, 15(1),
1559325816685467.
Goodarzi, N., Nosratabadi, M., & Ahmadi, H. (2019). The Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation
(tDCS) on Attention and Shooting Performance in Shooters. Journal of Biochemical Technology, (2): 140-
144. (In Persian)
Ikeda, T., Takahashi, T., Hiraishi, H., Saito, D. N., & Kikuchi, M. (2019). Anodal transcranial direct current
stimulation induces high gamma-band activity in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during a working
memory task: a double-blind, randomized, crossover study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13, 136.
Ironside, M., O’Shea, J., Cowen, P. J., & Harmer, C. J. (2016). Frontal cortex stimulation reduces vigilance to
threat: implications for the treatment of depression and anxiety. Biological psychiatry, 79(10), 823-830.
Jackson, C. (2017). Fear of failure Understanding Learning and Motivation in Youth (pp. 30-39): Routledge.
Kamali, A.-M., Nami, M., Yahyavi, S.-S., Saadi, Z. K., & Mohammadi, A. (2019). Transcranial Direct Current
Stimulation to Assist Experienced Pistol Shooters in Gaining Even-Better Performance Scores. The
Cerebellum, 18(1), 119-127. doi:10.1007/s12311-018-0967-9
Kolasinski, J., Hinson, E. L., Zand, A. P. D., Rizov, A., Emir, U. E., & Stagg, C. J. (2019). The dynamics of
cortical GABA in human motor learning. The Journal of Physiology, 597(1), 271-282.
Lefaucheur, J.-P., Antal, A., Ayache, S. S., Benninger, D. H., Brunelin, J., Cogiamanian, F., . . . Langguth, B.
(2017). Evidence-based guidelines on the therapeutic use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS).
Clinical Neurophysiology, 128(1), 56-92.
Lewis, B. P., & Linder, D. E. (1997). Thinking about choking? Attentional processes and paradoxical
performance. Personality and social psychology bulletin, 23(9), 937-944.
Mehrsafar, A. H., & Gazerani, P. (2019). Non-invasive brain stimulation in athletic competition. Apunts Sports
Medicine, 54(203), 105-106.
Mehrsafar, A. H., Rosa, M. A. S., Zadeh, A. M., & Gazerani, P. (2020). A feasibility study of application and
potential effects of a single session transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on competitive anxiety,
mood state, salivary levels of cortisol and alpha amylase in elite athletes under a real-world competition.
Physiology & Behavior, 227, 113173.
Mellalieu, S. D., Hanton, S., & Fletcher, D. (2006). A competitive anxiety review: Recent directions in sport
psychology research. Literature reviews in sport psychology, 1-45.
Mesagno, C., & Beckmann, J. (2017). Choking under pressure: theoretical models and interventions. Current
opinion in psychology, 16, 170-175.
Morya, E., Monte-Silva, K., Bikson, M., Esmaeilpour, Z., Biazoli, C. E., Fonseca, A., . . . Hausdorff, J. M.
(2019). Beyond the target area: an integrative view of tDCS-induced motor cortex modulation in patients
and athletes. Journal of neuroengineering and rehabilitation, 16(1), 1-29.
Murayama, T., Sekiya, H., & Tanaka, Y. (2010). Factor analysis of the mechanisms underlying “choking under
pressure” in sports. Asian Journal of Exercise & Sports Science, 7(1), 55-60.
Nelson, J., McKinley, R. A., Phillips, C., McIntire, L., Goodyear, C., Kreiner, A., & Monforton, L. (2016).
The effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on multitasking throughput capacity. Frontiers
in Human Neuroscience, 10, 589.
Notzon, S., Steinberg, C., Zwanzger, P., & Junghöfer, M. (2018). Modulating emotion perception: opposing
effects of inhibitory and excitatory prefrontal cortex stimulation. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive
Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 3(4), 329-336.
Pelletier, S. J., & Cicchetti, F. (2015). Cellular and molecular mechanisms of action of transcranial direct
current stimulation: evidence from in vitro and in vivo models. International Journal of
Neuropsychopharmacology, 18(2), pyu047.
ra Lee, B., min Nam, S., & ho Cho, I. (2018). Performance Improvement by One-Time Transcranial Direct
Current Stimulation (tDCS) of National Rifle Shooting Athletes. Seoul Olympic International Sports Science
Conference. 88, 342-342.
Rocha, K., Marinho, V., Magalhães, F., Carvalho, V., Fernandes, T., Ayres, M., . . . Cagy, M. (2020). Unskilled
shooters improve both accuracy and grouping shot having as reference skilled shooters cortical area: An
EEG and tDCS study. Physiology & Behavior, 224, 113036.
Sagar, S. S., Busch, B. K., & Jowett, S. (2010). Success and failure, fear of failure, and coping responses of
adolescent academy football players. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 22(2), 213-230.
Sattizahn, J. R., Moser, J. S., & Beilock, S. L. (2016). A closer look at who “chokes under pressure”. Journal
of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 5(4), 470-477.
Sotres-Bayon, F., Cain, C. K., & LeDoux, J. E. (2006). Brain mechanisms of fear extinction: historical
perspectives on the contribution of prefrontal cortex. Biological psychiatry, 60(4), 329-336.
Spielberger, C. D. (2013). Anxiety and behavior: Academic Press.
Tabachnick, B. G., Fidell, L. S., & Ullman, J. B. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (Vol. 5): Pearson Boston,
MA.
Thair, H., Holloway, A. L., Newport, R., & Smith, A. D. (2017). Transcranial direct current stimulation
(tDCS): a beginner's guide for design and implementation. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 11, 641.
Torabi, F., & Mortazaeedarsara, Z. (2022). The Effect of Direct Brain Electrical Stimulation on Concentration
and the Record of Pistol Shooter. Journal of Sports and Motor Development and , 13(4), 407-425. doi:
10.22059/jmlm.2021.328654.1601. (In Persian)
Van Schuerbeek, A., Pierre, A., Vanderhasselt, M., Pedron, S., Van Waes, V., & De Bundel, D. (2019). Fear
modulation by transcranial direct current stimulation. Brain Stimulation: Basic, Translational, and Clinical
Research in Neuromodulation, 12(2), 572.
Viviani, R. (2014). Neural correlates of emotion regulation in the ventral prefrontal cortex and the encoding
of subjective value and economic utility. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 5, 123.
Wang, B., Xiao, S., Yu, C., Zhou, J., & Fu, W. (2021). Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation
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