Document Type : Research Paper I Open Access I Released under CC BY-NC 4.0 license
Authors
1 Department of Motor behavior, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran.
2 Department of Motor behavior, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran .
Abstract
Introduction: The present study aimed to investigate the effect of a course of Taekwondo goal-oriented physical exercises on the cognitive functions of children with learning disorders.
Methods: In this quasi-experimental study, which was conducted with a pre-test-post-test control group design, 20 boys with learning disorders were selected from the centers for learning disabilities by referring to special education in Mashhad. In the pre-test stage, the participants' working memory and inhibition were measured by N-back and Stroop tests, respectively. After that, the exercise group participated in the selected Taekwondo exercise program for three 50-minute sessions per week for four weeks. In each session, a set of My Brain cognitive games was used before the implementation of the exercise protocol. In the first 10 minutes of the session, cognitive games were played, then 10 minutes of warming up, 30 minutes of teaching and practicing Taekwondo techniques, and finally 10 minutes of cooling down were conducted. During this period, the control group did their usual activities. Finally, the dependent variables were measured again in the post-test phase. Repeated measures analysis of variance test was used for statistical analysis.
Results: Taekwondo goal-oriented physical exercises improved cognitive functions in the Exercise group; All these changes were significant compared to the control group (P<0.05).
Conclusion: Taekwondo goal-oriented physical exercises can be effective as an intervention to improve the cognitive functions of this group of children.
Keywords
Bacon, P., & Lord, R. N. (2021). The impact of physically active learning during the school day on children’s physical activity levels, time on task and learning behaviours and academic outcomes. Health education research, 36(3), 362-373. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyab020
Ben-Zeev, T., Hirsh, T., Weiss, I., Gornstein, M., & Okun, E. (2020). The effects of high-intensity functional training (HIFT) on spatial learning, visual pattern separation and attention span in adolescents. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 14, 165. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2020.577390
Daly-Smith, A. J., Zwolinsky, S., McKenna, J., Tomporowski, P. D., Defeyter, M. A., & Manley, A. (2018). Systematic review of acute physically active learning and classroom movement breaks on children’s physical activity, cognition, academic performance and classroom behaviour: understanding critical design features. BMJ open sport & exercise medicine, 4(1), e000341. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2018-000341
Demirci, N., Engin, A. O., & Özmen, A. (2012). The Influence of Physical Activity Level on the Children's Learning Ability of Disabled Children Having Difficulties in Learning. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 69, 1572-1578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.12.100
Desai, I. K., Kurpad, A. V., Chomitz, V. R., & Thomas, T. (2015). Aerobic fitness, micronutrient status, and academic achievement in Indian school-aged children. PLoS One, 10(3), e0122487. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0122487
Esteban-Cornejo, I., Cadenas-Sanchez, C., Contreras-Rodriguez, O., Verdejo-Roman, J., Mora-Gonzalez, J., Migueles, J. H., ... & Ortega, F. B. (2017). A whole brain volumetric approach in overweight/obese children: Examining the association with different physical fitness components and academic performance. The ActiveBrains project. Neuroimage, 159, 346-354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.08.011
Fernandes, J., Arida, R. M., & Gomez-Pinilla, F. (2017). Physical exercise as an epigenetic modulator of brain plasticity and cognition. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 80, 443-456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.06.012
García, T., Rodríguez, C., Betts, L., Areces, D., & González-Castro, P. (2016). How affective-motivational variables and approaches to learning predict mathematics achievement in upper elementary levels. Learning and Individual Differences, 49, 25-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.05.021
Ghasemian Moghadam, H., Sohrabi, M., & Taheri, H. (2019). The Effect of Selected Motor Games on Static and Dynamic Balance in Children with Specific Learning Disorder. Journal of Motor Learning and Movement, 11(1), 103-121. https://doi.org/10.22059/jmlm.2019.262860.1396 (In Persian)
Ghasemian Moghadam, H., Sohrabi, M., & Taheri, H. (2020). The Effect of Selected Perceptual ـMotor Exercises on Motor Proficiency of Children with Learning Disorder. Motor Behavior, 12(39), 51-68. https://doi.org/10.22089/mbj.2018.4788.1557 (In Persian)
Ghasemian Moghadam, M., & Mirnia, E. (2019). The Prediction of Taekwondo Poomsae Performance Based on Working Memory Scores. Sport Psychology Studies, 7(26), 107-120. https://doi.org/10.22089/spsyj.2019.6681.1711 (In Persian)
Huang, C. J., Tu, H. Y., Hsueh, M. C., Chiu, Y. H., Huang, M. Y., & Chou, C. C. (2020). Effects of acute aerobic exercise on executive function in children with and without learning disability: A randomized controlled trial. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 37(4), 404-422. https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.2019-0108
Johnstone, A., & Marí-Beffa, P. (2018). The effects of martial arts training on attentional networks in typical adults. Frontiers in psychology, 80. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00080
Kashi, A., Rafiee, S., & Zereshkian, M. (2019). The Effect of Perceptual Motor Training and Cognitive Games on Cognitive Development in Mentally Retarded Children. Journal of Sports and Motor Development and Learning, 10(4), 485-504. https://doi.org/10.22059/jmlm.2018.243646.1305(In Persian)
Kim, Y. (2015). The effect of regular Taekwondo exercise on Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and Stroop test in undergraduate student. Journal of exercise nutrition & biochemistry, 19(2), 73. https://doi.org/10.5717/jenb.2015.15060904
Soltani Kouhbanani, S., Arabi, S. M., Zarenezhad, S., & Khosrorad, R. (2020). The Effect of Perceptual-motor training on executive functions in children with non-verbal learning disorder. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 1129-1137. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S252662
Krause, B., & Kadosh, R. C. (2013). Can transcranial electrical stimulation improve learning difficulties in atypical brain development? A future possibility for cognitive training. Developmental cognitive neuroscience, 6, 176-194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2013.04.001
Kumari, P., & Raj, P. (2016). Role of Physical Activity in Learning Disability: A Review. Clinical and Experimental Psychology, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.4172/2471-2701.1000118
Kure, C. E., Rosenfeldt, F. L., Scholey, A. B., Pipingas, A., Kaye, D. M., Bergin, P. J., ... & Stough, C. (2016). Relationships among cognitive function and cerebral blood flow, oxidative stress, and inflammation in older heart failure patients. Journal of cardiac failure, 22(7), 548-559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cardfail.2016.03.006
Lakes, K. D., Bryars, T., Sirisinahal, S., Salim, N., Arastoo, S., Emmerson, N., ... & Kang, C. J. (2013). The healthy for life taekwondo pilot study: a preliminary evaluation of effects on executive function and BMI, feasibility, and acceptability. Mental health and physical activity, 6(3), 181-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2013.07.002
Lee, B., & Kim, K. (2015). Effect of Taekwondo training on physical fitness and growth index according to IGF-1 gene polymorphism in children. The Korean journal of physiology & pharmacology: official journal of the Korean Physiological Society and the Korean Society of Pharmacology, 19(4), 341. https://doi.org/10.4196/kjpp.2015.19.4.341
Lott, M. A., & Jensen, C. D. (2017). Executive control mediates the association between aerobic fitness and emotion regulation in preadolescent children. Journal of pediatric psychology, 42(2), 162-173. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsw052
Lundbye-Jensen, J., Skriver, K., Nielsen, J. B., & Roig, M. (2017). Acute exercise improves motor memory consolidation in preadolescent children. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 11, 182. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2017.00182
MacLeod, C. M. (1991). Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: an integrative review. Psychological bulletin, 109(2), 163. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.109.2.163
McNeill, J., Howard, S. J., Vella, S. A., Santos, R., & Cliff, D. P. (2018). Physical activity and modified organized sport among preschool children: Associations with cognitive and psychosocial health. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 15, 45-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2018.07.001
Mandolesi, L., Polverino, A., Montuori, S., Foti, F., Ferraioli, G., Sorrentino, P., & Sorrentino, G. (2018). Effects of physical exercise on cognitive functioning and wellbeing: biological and psychological benefits. Frontiers in psychology, 509. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00509
Masoudi, M., Seghatoleslami, A., & Saghebjoo, M. (2016). The effect of 8 weeks of aerobic training on cognitive performance in children with learning disorders. Journal of Fundamentals of Mental Health, 18(3), 161-168. https://doi.org/ 10.22038/jfmh.2016.6887(In Persian)
Matthies, S., Philipsen, A., & Svaldi, J. (2012). Risky decision making in adults with ADHD. Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry, 43(3), 938-946. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2012.02.002
Mattison, R. E., & Mayes, S. D. (2012). Relationships between learning disability, executive function, and psychopathology in children with ADHD. Journal of attention disorders, 16(2), 138-146. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054710380188
McNeill, J., Howard, S. J., Vella, S. A., Santos, R., & Cliff, D. P. (2018). Physical activity and modified organized sport among preschool children: Associations with cognitive and psychosocial health. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 15, 45-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2018.07.001
Moll, K., Göbel, S. M., Gooch, D., Landerl, K., & Snowling, M. J. (2016). Cognitive risk factors for specific learning disorder: Processing speed, temporal processing, and working memory. Journal of learning disabilities, 49(3), 272-281. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219414547221
Neudecker, C., Mewes, N., Reimers, A. K., & Woll, A. (2019). Exercise interventions in children and adolescents with ADHD: a systematic review. Journal of attention disorders, 23(4), 307-324. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054715584053
Pontifex, M. B., Saliba, B. J., Raine, L. B., Picchietti, D. L., & Hillman, C. H. (2013). Exercise improves behavioral, neurocognitive, and scholastic performance in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The Journal of pediatrics, 162(3), 543-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.08.036
Rapport, M. D., Bolden, J., Kofler, M. J., Sarver, D. E., Raiker, J. S., & Alderson, R. M. (2009). Hyperactivity in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a ubiquitous core symptom or manifestation of working memory deficits?. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 37, 521-534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9287-8
Seljebotn, P. H., Skage, I., Riskedal, A., Olsen, M., Kvalø, S. E., & Dyrstad, S. M. (2019). Physically active academic lessons and effect on physical activity and aerobic fitness. The Active School study: A cluster randomized controlled trial. Preventive medicine reports, 13, 183-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2018.12.009
Serra, L., Raimondi, S., Di Domenico, C., Maffei, S., Lardone, A., Liparoti, M., ... & Mandolesi, L. (2021). The beneficial effects of physical exercise on visuospatial working memory in preadolescent children. AIMS neuroscience, 8(4), 496. https://doi.org/10.3934/Neuroscience.2021026
Siminghalam, M., Alibakhshi, H., & Ahmadi Zadeh, Z. (2016). An investigation of bilateral coordination of children with specific learning disorder. Journal of Paramedical Sciences & Rehabilitation, 5(1), 7-13. https://doi.org/10.22038/JPSR.2016.6379 (In Persian)
Soga, K., Kamijo, K., & Masaki, H. (2016). Effects of acute exercise on executive function in children with and without neurodevelopmental disorders. The Journal of Physical Fitness and Sports Medicine, 5(1), 57-67. https://doi.org/10.7600/jpfsm.5.57
Sung, J., & Wickrama, K. A. (2018). Longitudinal relationship between early academic achievement and executive function: Mediating role of approaches to learning. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54, 171-183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.06.010
Su-Youn, C., So, W. Y., & Roh, H. T. (2017). The Effects of Taekwondo Training on Peripheral Neuroplasticity-Related Growth Factors, Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity, and Cognitive Functions in Healthy Children: A Randomized Controlled Trial. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(5), 454. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14050454
Swanson, H. L., Kehler, P., & Jerman, O. (2010). Working memory, strategy knowledge, and strategy instruction in children with reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(1), 24-47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219409338743
Tomporowski, P. D., & Pesce, C. (2019). Exercise, sports, and performance arts benefit cognition via a common process. Psychological bulletin, 145(9), 929. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000200
Zhang, X., Fu, W., Xue, L., Zhao, J., & Wang, Z. (2019). Children with mathematical learning difficulties are sluggish in disengaging attention. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 932. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00932
)