Document Type : Research Paper I Open Access I Released under CC BY-NC 4.0 license
Authors
1 Department of Motor behavior, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran.
2 Department of Motor behavior, Faculty of Sport Sciences , Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran.
3 Department of Motor behavior , Faculty of Sport Sciences, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran
Abstract
Introduction: Executive functions are a vital indicator of athletic success, and one of the interventions that can influence them is Quadrato motor meditation. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of these trainings at the behavioral level on the executive function of semi-skilled athletes
Methods: One hundred semi-skilled female athletes aged 15 to 18 years were selected via convenience sampling from shooters in Yazd province and randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. Each component of executive function was assessed in separate sessions. The Quadrato motor meditation intervention was performed for 28 days, six minutes per day. The post-test was then administered following the same protocol as the pre-test. Data were analyzed using multivariate and univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) in SPSS software, with a significance level set at p<0.05.
Results: The findings showed that Quadrato motor trainings were effective in increasing scores in interference and asymmetries of response from the response inhibition dimension, the two subcategories, and persistence from the cognitive flexibility dimension, and also in improving performance in the working memory dimension during the post-test phase. These improvements amounted to 12.6% in response inhibition, 21.6% in working memory, and 18% in cognitive flexibility.
Conclusion: The results of this study are consistent with structural and functional brain research. Quadrato motor meditation training had a positive effect on the three core components of executive function at the behavioral level and could serve as an appropriate intervention to enhance executive functioning in athletes.
Keywords
Allen, M., Dietz, M., Blair, K. S., van Beek, M., Rees, G., Vestergaard-Poulsen, P., ... & Roepstorff, A. (2012). Cognitive-affective neural plasticity following active-controlled mindfulness intervention. Journal of Neuroscience, 32(44), 15601-15610. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2957-12.2012
Amouzadeh, F., Gharayagh Zandy, H., Moradisabzevar, M., Rostami, R., & Moghadamzadeh, A. (2021). Impact of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) on the Cognitive Flexibility of hyperactive student-athletes. Psychology of Exceptional Individuals, 11(41), 47-75.https://doi.org/10.22054/jpe.2021.57509.2264. (In Persian)
Anderson, N. D., Lau, M. A., Segal, Z. V., & Bishop, S. R. (2007). Mindfulness‐based stress reduction and attentional control. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy: An International Journal of Theory & Practice, 14(6), 449-463. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.544
Barzegarpoor, H., Rajabi, H., Button, D., & Fayazmilani, R. (2021). The effect of simultaneous physical and brain endurance training on fatigue and exercise tolerance inactive people. Journal of Practical Studies of Biosciences in Sport, 9(18), 72-83. https://doi.org/10.22077/JPSBS.2020.3110.1540. (In Persian)
Bashmakova, I., & Shcherbakova, O. (2021). Just open your mind? A randomized, controlled study on the effects of meditation on creativity. Frontiers in psychology, 12, 663881.https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.663881
Beglari, M., Maleki, M., & Ghaeini, S. (2015). The effect of acute aerobic exercise mode on response inhibition in athletics. Motor Behavior, 6(18), 85-102. (In Persian)
Ben-Soussan, T. D., Berkovich-Ohana, A., Glicksohn, J., & Goldstein, A. (2014). A suspended act: increased reflectivity and gender-dependent electrophysiological change following Quadrato Motor Training. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 55. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00055
Ben-Soussan, T. D., Berkovich-Ohana, A., Piervincenzi, C., Glicksohn, J., & Carducci, F. (2015). Embodied cognitive flexibility and neuroplasticity following Quadrato Motor Training. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1021. https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01021
Ben-Soussan, T. D., Glicksohn, J., & Berkovich-Ohana, A. (2017). Attentional effort, mindfulness, and altered states of consciousness experiences following Quadrato Motor Training. Mindfulness, 8(1), 59-67.https://doi.org/ 10.1155/2017/9554901
Ben-Soussan, T. D., Glicksohn, J., & Berkovich-Ohana, A. (2015). From cerebellar activation and connectivity to cognition: a review of the Quadrato Motor Training. BioMed research international, 2015(1), 954901. https://doi.org/ 10.1155/2015/954901
Ben‐Soussan, T. D., Piervincenzi, C., Venditti, S., Verdone, L., Caserta, M., & Carducci, F. (2015). Increased cerebellar volume and BDNF level following quadrato motor training. Synapse, 69(1), 1-6. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/syn.21787
Bühlmayer, L., Birrer, D., Röthlin, P., Faude, O., & Donath, L. (2017). Effects of mindfulness practice on performance-relevant parameters and performance outcomes in sports: A meta-analytical review. Sports medicine, 47(11), 2309-2321.https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0752-9
Bush, G., Spencer, T. J., Holmes, J., Shin, L. M., Valera, E. M., Seidman, L. J., ... & Biederman, J. (2008). Functional magnetic resonance imaging of methylphenidate and placebo in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder during the multi-source interference task. Archives of general psychiatry, 65(1), 102-114. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2007.16
Cásedas, L., Pirruccio, V., Vadillo, M. A., & Lupiáñez, J. (2020). Does mindfulness meditation training enhance executive control? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials in adults. Mindfulness, 11(2), 411-424. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-019-01279-4
Cantelon, J. A., & Giles, G. E. (2021). A review of cognitive changes during acute aerobic exercise. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 653158.https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.653158
Chambers, R., Lo, B. C. Y., & Allen, N. B. (2008). The impact of intensive mindfulness training on attentional control, cognitive style, and affect. Cognitive therapy and research, 32(3), 303-322.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-007-9119-0
Cona, G., Cavazzana, A., Paoli, A., Marcolin, G., Grainer, A., & Bisiacchi, P. S. (2015). It’sa matter of mind! Cognitive functioning predicts the athletic performance in ultra-marathon runners. PloS one, 10(7), e0132943. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0132943
De Fano, A., Leshem, R., & Ben-Soussan, T. D. (2019). Creating an internal environment of cognitive and psycho-emotional well-being through an external movement-based environment: an overview of Quadrato Motor Training. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(12), 2160.https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16122160
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135-168. https://doi.org/ 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
Diamond, A., & Ling, D. S. (2019). Aerobic-Exercise and resistance-training interventions have been among the least effective ways to improve executive functions of any method tried thus far. Developmental cognitive neuroscience, 37, 100572. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.dcn.2018.05.001
Dietrich, A., & Sparling, P. B. (2004). Endurance exercise selectively impairs prefrontal-dependent cognition. Brain and cognition, 55(3), 516-524. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.bandc.2004.03.002
Dotan Ben-Soussan, T., Glicksohn, J., Goldstein, A., Berkovich-Ohana, A., & Donchin, O. (2013). Into the square and out of the box: the effects of Quadrato Motor Training on creativity and alpha coherence. PLoS One, 8(1), e55023.https://doi.org/ 10.1371/journal.pone.0055023
Esmaeili, R., Estaki, M., & Shahriari Ahmadi, M. (2022). Evaluation and Comparison of the Effectiveness of PARISA and PARS Cognitive Rehabilitation Package in Improving Working Memory and Attention Retention Children with Attention Deficit/hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Modern Psychological Researches, 17(67), 13-23.https://doi.org/ 10.22034/jmpr.2022.15320 (In Persian)
Faubert, J. (2013). Professional athletes have extraordinary skills for rapidly learning complex and neutral dynamic visual scenes. Scientific reports, 3(1), 1154.https://doi.org/ 10.1038/srep01154
Fiocco, A. J., & Mallya, S. (2015). The importance of cultivating mindfulness for cognitive and emotional well-being in late life. Journal of evidence-based complementary & alternative medicine, 20(1), 35-40. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/2156587214553940
Furley, P., & Wood, G. (2016). Working memory, attentional control, and expertise in sports: A review of current literature and directions for future research. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 5(4), 415-425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.05.001
Gallant, S. N. (2016). Mindfulness meditation practice and executive functioning: Breaking down the benefit. Consciousness and cognition, 40, 116-130. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.concog.2016.01.005
Haqnazari, F., Nejati, V., & Pouretemad, H. (2022). Effectiveness of computerized working memory training on sustained attention and working memory of male school students. The Scientific Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 11(1), 2-13.https://doi.org/10.32598/SJRM.11.1.1. (In Persian)
Heilmann, F., Weinberg, H., & Wollny, R. (2022). The impact of practicing open-vs. closed-skill sports on executive functions—A meta-analytic and systematic review with a focus on characteristics of sports. Brain Sciences, 12(8), 1071.https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12081071
Hut, M., Minkler, T. O., Glass, C. R., Weppner, C. H., Thomas, H. M., & Flannery, C. B. (2023). A randomized controlled study of mindful sport performance enhancement and psychological skills training with collegiate track and field athletes. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 35(2), 284-306.https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2021.1989521
Ishihara, T., Kuroda, Y., & Mizuno, M. (2019). Competitive achievement may be predicted by executive functions in junior tennis players: An 18-month follow-up study. Journal of sports sciences, 37(7), 755-761. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/02640414.2018.1524738
Jamro, D., Zurek, G., Dulnik, M., Lachowicz, M., & Lenart, D. (2022). Executive function level in cadets’ shooting performance. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 6007. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106007
Jiang, D., Liu, Z., & Sun, G. (2021). The effect of yoga meditation practice on young adults’ Inhibitory control: an fNIRS study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 15, 725233. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2021.725233
Jha, A. P., Stanley, E. A., Kiyonaga, A., Wong, L., & Gelfand, L. (2010). Examining the protective effects of mindfulness training on working memory capacity and affective experience. Emotion, 10(1), 54.https://doi.org/ 10.1037/a0018438
Kao, S. C., Wang, C. H., Kamijo, K., Khan, N., & Hillman, C. (2021). Acute effects of highly intense interval and moderate continuous exercise on the modulation of neural oscillation during working memory. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 160, 10-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2020.12.003
Kramer, A. F., & Colcombe, S. (2018). Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: a meta-analytic study—revisited. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(2), 213-217. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1745691617707316
Laaksonen, M. S., Finkenzeller, T., Holmberg, H. C., & Sattlecker, G. (2018). The influence of physiobiomechanical parameters, technical aspects of shooting, and psychophysiological factors on biathlon performance: a review. Journal of sport and health science, 7(4), 394-404. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jshs.2018.09.003
Leshem, R., De Fano, A., & Ben-Soussan, T. D. (2020). The implications of motor and cognitive inhibition for hot and cool executive functions: The case of quadrato motor training. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 940. https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00940
Li, Y., Yang, N., Zhang, Y., Xu, W., & Cai, L. (2021). The relationship among trait mindfulness, attention, and working memory in junior school students under different stressful situations. Frontiers in psychology, 12, 558690. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.558690
Lodha, S., & Gupta, R. (2022). Mindfulness, attentional networks, and executive functioning: A review of interventions and long-term meditation practice. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 6(4), 531-548. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-022-00254-7
Marson, F., Zampieri, M., Verdone, L., Bacalini, M. G., Ravaioli, F., Morandi, L., ... & Reale, A. (2023). Quadrato Motor Training (QMT) is associated with DNA methylation changes at DNA repeats: A pilot study. Plos one, 18(10), e0293199.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293199
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive psychology, 41(1), 49-100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
Montuori, S., d'Aurizio, G., Foti, F., Liparoti, M., Lardone, A., Pesoli, M., ... & Sorrentino, P. (2019). Executive functioning profiles in elite volleyball athletes: Preliminary results by a sport-specific task switching protocol. Human movement science, 63, 73-81. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.humov.2018.11.011
Motevalli, S., Salahshour, H. M., & Bailey, R. P. (2023). The mediating role of cognitive flexibility in the relationship between cognitive emotion regulation strategies and mindfulness in patients with type 2 diabetes. Journal of affective disorders, 339, 676-682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2023.07.043
Moore, A., & Malinowski, P. (2009). Meditation, mindfulness and cognitive flexibility. Consciousness and cognition, 18(1), 176-186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2008.12.008
Morin, A., & Michaud, J. (2007). Self-awareness and the left inferior frontal gyrus: inner speech use during self-related processing. Brain research bulletin, 74(6), 387-396.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2007.06.013
Moynihan, J. A., Chapman, B. P., Klorman, R., Krasner, M. S., Duberstein, P. R., Brown, K. W., & Talbot, N. L. (2013). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for older adults: effects on executive function, frontal alpha asymmetry and immune function. Neuropsychobiology, 68(1), 34-43.https://doi.org/ 10.1159/000350949
Mrazek, M. D., Franklin, M. S., Phillips, D. T., Baird, B., & Schooler, J. W. (2013). Mindfulness training improves working memory capacity and GRE performance while reducing mind wandering. Psychological science, 24(5), 776-781. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612459659
Nien, J. T., Wu, C. H., Yang, K. T., Cho, Y. M., Chu, C. H., Chang, Y. K., & Zhou, C. (2020). Mindfulness Training Enhances Endurance Performance and Executive Functions in Athletes: An Event‐Related Potential Study. Neural plasticity, 2020(1), 8213710. https://doi.org/ 10.1155/2020/8213710
Noetel, M., Ciarrochi, J., Van Zanden, B., & Lonsdale, C. (2019). Mindfulness and acceptance approaches to sporting performance enhancement: A systematic review. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 12(1), 139-175. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2017.1387803
Nushi, M., Rahimi, S., & Rahimi, F. (2021). The Effect of Digital Image Guide on EFL Learners’ Intercultural Communicative Competence. Critical Language and Literary Studies, 18(26), 267-298. https://doi.org/10.52547/clls.18.26.267 (In Persian)
Piervincenzi, C., Ben-Soussan, T. D., Mauro, F., Mallio, C. A., Errante, Y., Quattrocchi, C. C., & Carducci, F. (2017). White matter microstructural changes following quadrato motor training: A longitudinal study. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 11, 590. https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00590
Roberts, R. E., Anderson, E. J., & Husain, M. (2013). White matter microstructure and cognitive function. The Neuroscientist, 19(1), 8-15. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1073858411421218
Sahdra, B. K., MacLean, K. A., Ferrer, E., Shaver, P. R., Rosenberg, E. L., Jacobs, T. L., ... & Saron, C. D. (2011). Enhanced response inhibition during intensive meditation training predicts improvements in self-reported adaptive socioemotional functioning. Emotion, 11(2), 299. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/a0022764
Shukla, D., & Heath, M. (2022). A single bout of exercise provides a persistent benefit to cognitive flexibility. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 93(3), 516-527.https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2021.1873902
Sumantry, D., & Stewart, K. E. (2021). Meditation, mindfulness, and attention: A meta-analysis. Mindfulness, 12(6), 1332-1349. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-021-01593-w
Sok, S., Shin, E., Kim, S., & Kim, M. (2021). Effects of cognitive/exercise dual-task program on the cognitive function, health status, depression, and life satisfaction of the elderly living in the community. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(15), 7848. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157848
Swick, D., Ashley, V., & Turken, A. U. (2008). Left inferior frontal gyrus is critical for response inhibition. BMC neuroscience, 9(1), 102.https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-9-102
Ten Brinke, L. F., Best, J. R., Chan, J. L., Ghag, C., Erickson, K. I., Handy, T. C., & Liu-Ambrose, T. (2020). The effects of computerized cognitive training with and without physical exercise on cognitive function in older adults: an 8-week randomized controlled trial. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A, 75(4), 755-763.https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glz115
Teper, R., & Inzlicht, M. (2013). Meditation, mindfulness and executive control: the importance of emotional acceptance and brain-based performance monitoring. Social cognitive and affective neuroscience, 8(1), 85-92.https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nss045
Tomporowski, P. D., & Pesce, C. (2019). Exercise, sports, and performance arts benefit cognition via a common process. Psychological bulletin, 145(9), 929. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000200
Uopasai, S., Bunterm, T., Tang, K. N., & Saksangawong, C. (2022). The effect of meditation on metacognitive ability, working memory ability, academic achievement, and stress levels. Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences Studies, 217-226. https://doi.org/10.14456/hasss.2022.20
Venditti, S., Verdone, L., Pesce, C., Tocci, N., Caserta, M., & Ben-Soussan, T. D. (2015). Creating Well‐Being: Increased Creativity and proNGF Decrease following Quadrato Motor Training. BioMed Research International, 2015(1), 275062. https://doi.org/ 10.1155/2015/275062
Verburgh, L., Scherder, E. J., van Lange, P. A., & Oosterlaan, J. (2014). Executive functioning in highly talented soccer players. PloS one, 9(3), e91254. https://doi.org/ 10.1371/journal.pone.0091254
Voss, M. W., Kramer, A. F., Basak, C., Prakash, R. S., & Roberts, B. (2010). Are expert athletes ‘expert’in the cognitive laboratory? A meta‐analytic review of cognition and sport expertise. Applied cognitive psychology, 24(6), 812-826. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/acp.1588
Wang, Y., Lei, S. M., & Fan, J. (2023). Effects of mindfulness-based interventions on promoting athletic performance and related factors among athletes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trial. International journal of environmental research and public health, 20(3), 2038.https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph2003203
Xiang, M., Li, G., Ye, J., Wu, M., Xu, R., & Hu, M. (2023). Effects of combined physical and cognitive training on executive function of adolescent shooting athletes: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study. Sports Medicine and Health Science, 5(3), 220-228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smhs.2023.02.004
Yakobi, O., Smilek, D., & Danckert, J. (2021). The effects of mindfulness meditation on attention, executive control and working memory in healthy adults: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 45(4), 543-560. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-020-10177-2
Yamaya, N., Tsuchiya, K., Takizawa, I., Shimoda, K., Kitazawa, K., & Tozato, F. (2021). Effect of one‐session focused attention meditation on the working memory capacity of meditation novices: A functional near‐infrared spectroscopy study. Brain and behavior, 11(8), e2288. https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.2288
)