Journal of Sports and Motor Development and Learning

Abstract Introduction: Growing concerns over the rising prevalence of burnout among competitive athletes have underscored the need to examine its antecedents, protective factors, and underlying mechanisms. The present study, therefore, aimed to investigate the relationship between self-compassion and athlete burnout, as well as the mediating role of gratitude in this relationship.
Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 339 athletes (146 females; Mage=20.54 years, SD=6.39) from Tehran Province, Iran, competing in both team and individual sports, completed measures of self-compassion (SCS-SF), athlete burnout ABQ), and gratitude (GQ). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed using AMOS (version 24.0) to test the proposed model.
Results: The empirical model demonstrated an adequate fit to the data, with fit indices derived from maximum likelihood estimation indicating linearity among the variables. Path analysis revealed that self-compassion significantly and negatively predicted athlete burnout. Moreover, gratitude played a significant mediating role in this relationship, such that higher levels of self-compassion were associated with increased gratitude, which in turn was associated with reduced athlete burnout
Conclusion: These findings suggest that self-compassion, as a positive trait, plays an effective protective role against athlete burnout, with gratitude serving as an underlying mechanism. The results highlight the importance of designing and implementing positive psychology interventions aimed at enhancing self-compassion and gratitude in sport settings, which may significantly contribute to preventing and reducing athlete burnout.

Abstract Introduction: This study aimed to investigate the effect of motivational self-talk on endurance performance, with an emphasis on the role of self-determination.
Methods: The participants included 18 physical education students with a history of regular exercise, with a mean age of 21.08±2.5 years, who voluntarily participated in the present study after being informed about the study's objectives and the application of its results. The research design was implemented as a within-group design, and reciprocal alignment was used to control the effect of novelty and the order of presentation of different levels of the independent variable. In three baseline conditions, autonomous motivational self-talk (self-determining), controlled motivational self-talk (coach determining), their endurance performance was measured within the group in the Bruce test based on the time to exhaustion and the perception of pressure with the Borg test.
Results: The results of repeated measures analysis of variance showed that self-talk in the self-determining condition led to a decrease in the perception of pressure and improved endurance performance compared to the determining coach condition. The results of the Bonferroni post hoc test showed that self-talk in the coach-determining and self-determining conditions led to improved endurance performance compared to the conditions without self-talk.
Conclusion: It seems that the autonomous motivational climate in conditions where the athlete played the main role in selecting and using the type of self-talk phrases provided the basis for improving endurance performance and reducing the perception of pressure in athletes by satisfying the psychological needs of autonomy, relevance, and competence.

Abstract Introduction: This study aimed to examine the effect of Mindfulness-Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) on mental toughness, flow state, and athletic performance in young volleyball players.
Methodology: This research employed a semi-experimental design using a pretest-posttest control group format. A total of 24 young volleyball players were randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group. Participants in the experimental group received the MSPE program, consisting of one-hour weekly sessions over six weeks. In contrast, the control group participated in a similarly structured discussion-based program that included reviews of volleyball history, rules, and basic game analysis. Flow state and mental toughness were measured using standardized questionnaires, and volleyball performance was assessed through a practical performance test during both the pretest and posttest phases. Data were analyzed using mixed ANOVA.
Results: The results of the mixed ANOVA indicated significant main effects of time, as well as significant group-by-time interaction effects, for all three variables: mental toughness, flow state, and performance (p<0.05). No significant differences were observed between the experimental and control groups at the pretest stage (p>0.05). However, posttest comparisons revealed significant improvements in the experimental group compared to the control group across all measured variables (p<0.05).
Conclusion: Based on these findings, it is recommended that mindfulness-based interventions be considered as a simple, cost-effective, accessible, and highly applicable method to enhance athletic performance, mental toughness, and flow state in young volleyball athletes.

Abstract Introduction: The purpose of this research was to study the effect of timing the use of strategic self-talk on the performance and learning of novices.
Methods: 36 new students in basketball skills were selected and randomly assigned into three pre-feedback strategic self-talk, post-feedback strategic self-talk, and control groups. In each session, 60 practice trials were given from four points of the basketball arc. After every three trials, the coach gave feedback to the trainees about how to perform the skill. In the first experimental group, the novices were taught to use strategic self-talk after completing three practice trials and before providing feedback to identify errors; In the second experimental group, the novices were asked to use strategic self-talk after providing feedback to correct errors, and in the control group, both training and feedback were given, but no self-talk was provided. Finally, two weeks after the end of the intervention, a retention test was held.
Results: The two-factor analysis of variance results in the acquisition phase showed that the main effects of sessions (P=0.000), and group (P=0.024) on basketball shooting performance were significant. Also, the interactive effect of sessions and groups on basketball shooting performance was significant (P=0.001). Finally, strategic self-talk before providing feedback improved basketball shooting skill learning compared to strategic self-talk after providing feedback (P=0.007).
Conclusion: It seems that strategic self-talk before providing feedback is beneficial for learning basketball shots due to the attention to error identification and the use of the coach's feedback for error correction.

Abstract The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of skill level on the performance of dribbling skills in soccer choking under pressure conditions. For this purpose, 20 skilled players of the university football team and twenty beginner students in football (with age range 18-25) participated in the study. The Egilly soccer dribble skill test was performed in two stages: without pressure condition and combined pressure condition. In the present study, the combination of two types of pressure, competition between participants and camcorders were used to create pressure condition. In order to ensure that the pressure conditions were applied, the level of competitive anxiety was measured using the second version of the competitive state anxiety and the heart rate of the participants. To analyze the data, repeated measures analysis of variance was used for comparing the mean scores and independent t-test was used to compare the mean scores of two groups without pressure condition. The results showed that the performance of the skilled group, decrease under pressure conditions and the performance of the beginner group improved under pressure conditions. It is possible that the pressure conditions in the beginner group would increase the effort to perform better and thus improve performance. It can also be said that the motivational role of pressure conditions has improved performance in beginners. In skilled persons, they are also likely to engage in skill-centered mechanisms that give less skill to the source of attention which is empirically evident in verifying the explicit review theory.

Abstract Theoretically, skill presentation will change behavior through processes such as imitation and motor repetition. If we want learning to happen, we need a process called training. Training can be delivered by the instructor through verbal and non–verbal instructions to the learner. One type of non–verbal instruction is pattern representation in which learner can learn through observation. The purpose of this model is to use the pattern representation as a means of transmitting information. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of three training methods: immediate, interspersed and combined imitation on Juno kata form performance. Therefore, 45 girls (9-12 years old) in Tehran city voluntarily participated in this study and were divided into three groups (each group 15 subjects) based on the type of intervention. Groups of immediate, interspersed and combined imitation had special imitation training programs with specific repetitions. In order to quantify data, 10-point Kata scale was used. As the data distribution and variance homogeneity were obtained, the result of analysis of variance with repeated measures showed that all three observational methods helped to improve the performance and this progress remained stable in the retention and transfer tests (P≤0.05). Also, the results of multivariate analysis of variance showed the priority of immediate imitation group on interspersed (P=0.0005) and combined (P=0.0005) imitation groups. The combined imitation group gained better scores than interspersed group (P=0.0005) and this differences was stable in retention and transfer tests.

Abstract Relaxation is a way of improving performance that can generally be classified as physical and mental relaxation. The mental relaxation technique is often named as the technique of mind to the body since the purpose of these techniques is to provide relaxation through the mind. The aim of the present study was to determine the effect a period of relaxation program (body to mind and mind to body) on the performance of semi-skilled football players. For this purpose, 39 players were selected and divided randomly into three groups: progressive muscle relaxation, creative visualization, and control. Before the interventions, a pretest was conducted by the observational method. In this relaxation program, subjects underwent two different types of relaxation after football training for 8 weeks. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics, analysis of variance with repeated measures and one-way analysis of variance. The results showed the significant effect of progressive muscle relaxation and creative visualization on maintaining and controlling the ball, accurately passing, accurately taking the ball from the opponent and overall players’ performance. In addition, the athletes who used progressive muscle relaxation had better performance than those who used creative visualization. In general, the methods of the body to mind and mind to body relaxation can each serve as an independent way to improve the performance of athletes, but the implementation of mind to body relaxation, such as the visualization of creativity, is more effective at skills that require more precision and concentration.

Abstract Aim: This study aimed to determine effect of self-control of task difficulty on accurate and movement pattern golf putting.
Methodology: Thirty novice undergraduate students (14 Female and 16 male; average age 21.1 ± 1.64 years) were quasi-randomly assigned to two groups. Before performing each trial during the acquisition phase, the self-control group was told they could choose any of the pre-set distances from the target: (25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175 and, 200 cm). Each self-control participant’s practice schedule was served as the predetermined practice schedule for each corresponding yoked participant. Participants practiced eight blocks of 10 trials. To analyze the radial error (in acquisition and tests phases) and the movement pattern score (in tests) mixed variance analysis with repeated measures on the last factor was used. The movement pattern score in acquisition phase was analyzed using t test.
Results: Based on the results, radial errors across different groups in the acquisition phase did not vary, but the radial error of the self-control group in retention, single task transfer and dual-task transfer tests was lower compared to the yoked group (ps < 0.001). In acquisition and test phases, the golf putting movement pattern was better than that of yoked group (ps < 0.001).
Conclusion: The efficacy of self-control of task difficulty is explained with reference to the challenge point framework.