Journal of Sports and Motor Development and Learning

Abstract This study aimed at exploring the main sources of acute stress in wrestlers
regarding the structure and the assessment of reliability and validity of the sources
of acute stress in wrestlers questionnaire (SASWQ). For this purpose, this
questionnaire was distributed among a sample of 330 wrestlers (mean age
21.56+5.3) in Tehran who were selected by multistage random sampling method.
Analysis of data with SPSS software showed that the Cronbach's alpha for all items
of this questionnaire was 0.909 and alpha coefficient of the internal consistency for
the first and second section was 0.870 and 0.831 respectively. Content validity of
the questionnaire showed the equity of each of the 8 principle components of acute
stress in wrestlers including skill performance, evaluation, contest, error, prospect,
time pressure, injury and environment as 2.43 on average through exploratory
factor analysis in the principle component analysis (PCA) with Varimax rotation.
In confirmatory factor analysis with Lisrel software, GFI=0.96, AGFI=0.92 and
CFI=0.93 were obtained. The findings showed that SASWQ had acceptable
reliability and validity and could measure the mentioned variable in the mentioned
statistical population.

Abstract Attribution theory is one of the psychological dynamic theories that explains
and describes people's perception of facts. Therefore, the aim of this research was
to study success and failure attributions in athletes and coaches. The population of
this study consisted of athletes and coaches of national teams (elite) and club
teams (sub–elite) in swimming, badminton, karate, taekwondo, table tennis and
wrestling. 120 male players and 12 coaches were selected through multistage
convenience sampling method. Then, data were collected by attribution styles
questionnaire (ASQ). The data were analyzed by multivariate ANOVA at P˂0.05.
The findings showed that elite athletes expressed more unstable and specific
attributions in failure conditions. In contrast, sub–elite athletes expressed more
stable and general attributions in failure conditions (P≤0.0001). As well, the
coaches of elite athletes expressed more stable and specific attributions than the
coaches of sub–elite athletes in success dimension (P≤0.0001). The results showed
that the casual attribution of athletes (elite and sub-elite) and their coaches (elite
and sub-elite) expressed elite athletes and coaches' privilege as elite athletes
expressed that most of the reasons for their success were internal, stable and
general. Also, athletes and coaches stated different attributions in the same
situation. It is recommended that coaches encourage their athletes to attempt more
to express all of their competencies in the competitions.

Abstract This study attempted to evaluate the effect of engagement with physical activity
on happiness of elderly men and women in Tehran city. The study population
included all the elderly in 22 regions of Tehran city and 400 subjects were selected
by multistage cluster sampling method as the sample of the study. To discriminate
active from inactive elderly subjects, Sharkey Physical Activity Questionnaire and
to determine the amount of their happiness, Oxford Happiness Inventory (OHI)
was used. The reliability and validity of the questionnaires were confirmed. All
participants were more than 60 years old and had no psychological and physical
disorders. After the questionnaires had been distributed and then collected and the
raw data had been classified, SPSS13 software was used to analyze the data. The
results of MANOVA at (P<0.0071) showed that active subjects significantly gained
higher scores in all the happiness subscales such as life satisfaction, joy, selfesteem,
control, efficiency, calmness and totally happiness than inactive subjects
while gender and interaction of gender and activity level did not have any
significant effect on happiness. Therefore, it can be stated that one of the factors
influencing happiness in the elderly is physical activity.

Abstract The aim of this study was to compare the effects of three types of balance
training: single task, dual task under fixed priority instructional set (Fp) and dual
task under a variable priority instructional set (Vp) on the balance of the elderly.
The participants were 36 elderly over 65 years old from Kerman province who
were randomly divided into three groups (each 12 subjects) based on Burg pretest
scores. The groups included single task, dual task under fixed priority and dual
task under variable priority. Experimental groups received 45 minutes of training
session, 3 sessions a week for 4 weeks. For data analysis, ANCOVA and
Bonferroni post hoc test were used at (P≤0.05). The results showed that a
significant difference between single task and dual task under fixed priority groups
and also between single task and dual task under variable priority (P=0.008 and
P=0.000 respectively). There was no significant difference between dual task under
fixed priority and variable priority groups (P=0.149). In addition, the results in
Tug test under dual task condition showed a significant difference between single
task and dual task under fixed priority groups and also between single task and
dual task under variable priority groups and also between dual task under fixed
and variable priority groups (P=0.035, P=0.033, P=0.000 respectively). The
results showed that single and dual task balance training improved balance
performance in the elderly but those who had training under dual task
outperformed under single and dual task conditions.

Abstract The major aim of this study was to compare the effectiveness of two teaching
methods of traditional (common) and integrated for physical education on learning
biology and developing social skills in male junior students. This study was semiexperimental
which was conducted in Islamshahr city for 12 weeks. The statistical
population consisted of 79 volunteer junior students who studied the second grade
and 52 students were selected by an IQ test and were assigned to two groups of
traditional (n=26) and integrated (n=26) purposively. During these three months,
physical education and biology were taught by the common method (separately)
for the traditional group while biology was integrated with physical education and
taught for the integrated group. The data were analyzed using Wilcoxon test, U
Mann Whitney test and t test. The results revealed a significant difference in
learning biology between traditional and integrated groups at α<0.05. The t test
results revealed a significant difference in the mean scores of impulsive behaviors
between traditional and integrated groups at α<0.01, that is, the mean scores
significantly decreased in the integrated method compared to the traditional
method. Also, there was a significant difference in the mean scores of suitable
social behaviors of subjects between integrated and traditional groups (α<0.001).
In other words, mean scores of the students in the integrated group significantly
increased compared to the traditional group.

Abstract Postural control requires the integration of sensory information in the visual,
vestibular, and senses the body systems. Also research has shown that the sensory
systems involved in postural control, decreased with increasing age. The aim of
this study was to investigate the effects of age and manipulation of sensory
information on the postural control. For this purpose, displacement of the anterior
- posterior, middle – lateral and speed center of pressure (COP) 22 elderly (59/54
± 2/31 year) and 25 young men (23/12±3/26 year) that selected based on target
and availability from Shahid Chamran University students and staff in four
different sensory conditions including 1) open eyes an hard surface 2) eyes open
on soft surface3) eyes closed on hard surface 4) eyes closed on soft surface during
three 30-second efforts with 5 min rest intervals between efforts evaluated. After
investigating the data normality with kolmogorov smirnov and equality of variance
using the leven test, data using multivariable variance analysis and one-way
variance analysis was analyzed. Significant differences was observed between
young and elderly groups in all conditions, also removes the visual and plantar
proprioceptive information lead to increased sway in the two groups that increase
was greater in the elderly than in young group. This results indicate the
importance of visual information and plantar proprioceptive in postural control,
especially in the elderly.

Abstract The aim of this study was to examine the effect of overt and covert motivational
self-talk on perceived exertion and performance in a progressive exercise until
exhaustion in wrestlers. The population consisted of wrestlers in Urmia and 15
volunteer subjects were selected. This study was performed in three sessions with a
one-week interval. The first session was held without self–talk while the second and
third sessions were held covertly and overtly respectively. Bruce aerobic exercise
test was used in this study as well. The time to exhaustion was considered as
performance. Burg scale was used every 3 minutes in order to measure subjects'
exhaustion. To analyze the data, ANOVA with repeated measures and TUKEY post
hoc test was used. The results showed that only covert self-talk had a significant
effect on subjects’ performance (P=0.002). Also, overt motivational self-talk
(P=0.001) significantly decreased the subjects' perceived exertion rather than
covert self–talk. There was no significant difference between covert self-talk and
without self–talk (P=0.121). In conclusion, overt motivational self-talk decreased
the perceived exertion of the subjects in the progressive exercise until exhaustion
while covert motivational self-talk improved subjects’ endurance.

Abstract In recent years, the effects of exercise on nervous system, spatial memory and
motor function in the senescence period have received the attention of researchers.
As the age increases, some functions of nervous system such as spatial memory are
weakened. Thus, the effect of aerobic exercises including swimming and running
on learning, spatial memory and motor function was investigated in old rats. The
study was experimental. 30 rats (18 months old) were randomly divided into
three groups: experimental 1 (running on a treadmill), experimental 2 (swimming
in the water maze) and control. Rat treadmill was used for subjects' exercise,
Morris water maze device was used to apply exercise protocol and to examine their
memory and learning and open field device was used to examine subjects' motor
function. One-way analysis of variance was used to analyze the data. The results
were reported as mean + SD and suggested that in spatial memory test (time to
reach the target and the covered distance to reach the target), Experimental 1
group (swimming) significantly outperformed control and experimental 2 (running)
groups (P=0.001). Treadmill group had a better performance in spatial memory
test (time to reach the target) than control group (P=0.04). In motor function test
(open field test), experimental 1 and 2 groups were significantly superior to the
control group in the total distance covered (P=0.001, P=0.002 respectively). In the
mean speed covered in the open field test, Experimental 1 and 2 groups were
significantly superior to the control group (P=0.001, P=0.003 respectively). The
results showed that aerobic exercise especially swimming had a positive effect on
memory consolidation, retention and motor function, that is, exercise probably
improves reward paths in the nervous system of the rats and this factor can be a
reason for memory consolidation and learning in the nervous system.

Abstract