Journal of Sports and Motor Development and Learning

Abstract Boxing is one of the organized high-contact sports that requires purposeful
punches to the head and body of the opponent in both amateur and professional
levels, so traumatic head injury in boxers isn’t impossible. In this type of injury,
though intact cognitive functions, it is possible that total cognitive beneficiary
become impaired as a result of distractibility, imperfect concentration, and
aftermath fatigue. Thus, purpose of this study was to investigate attentional
disorders in amateur boxing. Subjects of the study were 30 male experienced
amateur boxers (more than 4 years background, age= 24±3.1) as experimental
group, and 30 male novice amateur boxers (less than 1 year background,
age=25±4.2) and 30 male 400 and 800 meter runners (age= 24±2.7) as control
groups. We used DAUF continuous attention test to assess attentional component.
In order to data analyzing was used MANOVA in the significance level of 0.05.
Findings showed that in none of variables there were significant difference
between groups (P>0.05), meaning that amateur boxing periods even longer than
4 years doesn't lead to attentional disorders. Based on our findings, it is concluded
that intensity of punches in amateur boxing doesn't reach to threshold that lead to
brain damage at least in regions which control visual attention.

Abstract The vital role of exercise in many aspects of daily life and somewhat cognitive
functions are acknowledged but a point that has recently gained researchers'
attention is to investigate the effect of different types of exercises on cognitive
functions and the mediating mechanisms of this effect. The aim of this study was to
determine the effect of two types of endurance and resistance exercises on the
levels of attention and BDNF of sedentary students. Therefore, 46 sedentary
students from University of Tehran (mean age 24.3+1.8 yr) were assigned to three
groups: endurance, resistance and control after the Stroop pretest. After blood
samples had been collected, the subjects continued their exercise protocol for five
weeks. Finally, at least 48 hours after the last session, the Stroop test was
performed and blood samples were collected in order to eliminate the temporary
effects of exercises. For data analysis, Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, paired sample t
test, one–way ANOVA, MANOVA test, Dunnett's T3 post hoc test and Pearson
correlation coefficient test were used (P≤0.05). Results showed a significant
improvement in the response time of Stroop test in both endurance and resistance
groups while expression of BDNF significantly increased only in endurance group
(P<0.05). The control group showed no improvement in any variables. In addition,
there was no significant difference between the effect of two types of exercise on
the response time of the Stroop test and expression of BDNF (P>0.05). There was
no significant correlation between the variations of response time of the Stroop test
and expression of BDNF (P>0.05). Finally, this research indicated that exercise
can improve cognitive functions, but there was no significant difference between
endurance and resistance exercises in response to this question that which activity
was more useful.

Abstract Physical balance is one of the important factors in daily sport activities.
Dynamic balance helps maintain the balance of those forces imposed on body in
sports and an increase in this balance improves motor and sport performance. The
aim of this study was to determine the effects of neurofeedback training on dynamic
balance of young men. 24 male undergraduate students voluntarily participated in
this study and were involved in a double-blind design including control and
experimental groups. The experimental group participated in neurofeedback
training including the inhibition of brainwaves of 4-7 Hz and the reinforcement of
brainwaves of 15-18 Hz at O1-O2 regions of the hindbrain for 10 sessions and 30
minutes per session. Participants in the control group were exposed to the same
condition, but instead they were provided with sham feedback. EEG and dynamic
balance tests were administered before, at the end of the fifth and tenth sessions of
training for both groups. The results indicated that dynamic balance significantly
improved in the fifth session and posttest. The findings demonstrate that
neurofeedback training can enhance dynamic balance of young men. It is
suggested that this training should be used to increase dynamic balance of athletes.

Abstract The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of physical activity on
memory and dynamic balance of elder people. Subjects (n=15) were selected as
volunteers. The intervention was performed in an eighteen session period, three
times a week (each session, 45 minutes). Yoga training was performed for mental
relaxation. Wexler test was performed for memory evaluation. Seat up test was
used to test the dynamic balance. The results suggested that water-based exercises
and Yoga protocol have had a positive significant effect on memory (p=0.03) and
dynamic balance. It was concluded that a selected physical activity program,
especially water-based exercises has less potential for making people injured.

Abstract The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of pressure and
attentional instruction on table tennis players' performance. For this purpose, 16
table tennis players were tested in 4 conditions with different attentional
instructions and pressure conditions. The test included a table tennis task: the ball
color signified the target where the ball had to be hit and the player had to perform
topspin drive against backspin balls that were thrown by the machine. Attentional
instructions were different in task-irrelevant and task-relevant cues. Pressure
conditions were manipulated through a competitive ranking and money prize.
Participants' performances were assessed through accuracy in hitting definite
targets and verbal reaction time to attentional instructions. Data were analyzed by
two-factorial ANOVA with repeated measures for each variable. The results
showed no significant difference in performance in different phases of the test
(P>0.5). The only significant difference was related to the main effect of pressure
on verbal reaction time, that is to say verbal reaction time increased under higher
pressure (P<0.5). In total, the results indicated that under pressure, regardless of
the type of attentional instruction, performance efficiency decreased.

Abstract The aim of the present study was to examine the reliability and validity of
balance performance clinical tests for hearing impaired persons with moderate
hearing level. In this descriptive-survey study with repeated measures, 220 hearing
impaired subjects with normal intelligence and moderate hearing level were
selected as the statistical sample from all deaf and hearing impaired subjects who
had participated in national competitions in Arak city. The scale (3) of Cattell
Culture Fair Intelligence Test and motor performance clinical tests were used to
collect the data. After checking the date normality, data were analyzed with intraclass
and interclass correlation coefficients and factor analysis tests. The results
revealed that finger-to-noise test with dominant hand (ICC=0.79), and with nondominant
hand (ICC=0.81), time-up and go test (ICC=0.76), and tandem gait test
(ICC=0.87) were reliable. But, the dominant and non-dominant single leg stance
tests with open and closed eyes were not reliable (ICC<0.75). The validity of
balance performance clinical tests was confirmed with factor analysis test. Overall,
the finger-to-noise with dominant and non-dominant hand, the time-up and go, and
the tandem gait tests were the most stable tests to assess balance and coordination
of hearing impaired participants.

Abstract Psychological findings show that a lower IQ score than the normal level is not
enough to recognize someone as mentally retarded. In addition they have visible
and specific difficulties in their adaptive behaviors. Research on adaptive
behaviors is useful for those with specific needs and if mentally retarded children
want to adapt themselves to social life, they should improve their adaptive
behaviors. The current study aimed at determining the effect of a period of regular
exercise activity on the improvement of adaptive behavior in 9-15-year-old
educable mentally retarded students in Lordegan city. From 156 educable mentally
retarded students, 28 students were selected randomly and divided into two groups
of experimental (7 boys and 7 girls) and control (7 boys and 7 girls). Vinland
adaptive behavior Scale (1965) was used as the pretest. Then, the experimental
group took part in a period of exercise activity as an intervention program for 2
months, 3 sessions every week, 45 minutes per session. The data were analyzed by
covariance using SPSS software (P˂0.05). The results showed a significant
difference between the performance of the two groups in adaptive behavior and
sub-skills of socialization, communication, locomotion, dressing self-help, general
self-help and eating self-help (P<0.05) while there was no significant difference in
sub-skills of occupation and self-direction which showed that a period of regular
exercise activity had an effect on the improvement of some sub-skills of adaptive
behavior in experimental group. This approach can be used in rehabilitation and
instruction of mentally retarded children.

Abstract Coping style is one of the substantial factors influencing sport achievements in
sport competitions. The main aim of the present study was to examine the effect of
sport stress coping styles on sources of acute stress and salivary cortisol in
wrestlers. With regard to the criteria and variables of this study, 30 out of 270
active national wrestlers participated according to the cut-off point of coping styles
questionnaire in two approach and avoidant coping groups. The participants were
asked to complete Sources of wrestling acute stress questionnaire and to collect the
saliva to measure salivary cortisol levels. Multivariate analysis of variance results
indicated that sources of acute stress were significantly higher in approach coping
wrestlers than avoidant coping group (P=0.001). Also, salivary cortisol level was
significantly lower in avoidant coping group than the approach coping group
(P=0.012). According to the results, different stress coping styles influenced
perceived stress of acute stress and salivary cortisol levels in wrestlers. The
findings of this study can be used in instruction of different sport stress coping
styles in wrestlers in order to reduce their mental pressure in the competitions.

Abstract