Journal of Sports and Motor Development and Learning

Abstract There is no doubt that augmented feedback has an important role in improving
learning. However, it is the content of the feedback which is challenging. The aim
of the present study was to examine the effect of feedback on successful versus
unsuccessful trials on simple and complex tracking tasks. For this purpose, 48
undergraduate right-handed male and female students of Hakim Sabzevari Teacher
Training University (mean age = 23+1.8 yr) were selected from those students who
had taken general physical education course and were randomly divided into four
groups (N=12) of feedback on successful and unsuccessful trials in simple and
complex tasks. The tracking task was designed in two levels (simple and complex)
in a computer software format to be performed by the participants with maximum
speed and the lowest number of errors. During the acquisition phase, participants
performed 7 blocks of 6 trials in 8 days and they received feedback on two trials.
The method of research was quasi–experimental and ANOVA for multiple factors,
analysis of variance with repeated measures and Bonferroni post hoc test (P˂0.05)
were used for data analysis. The results showed that in the acquisition test, the
main effects of trial days and task complexity (in movement time) were significant.
These factors did not significantly influence movement error and their interaction.
In immediate retention test, the effects of the type of task and feedback (in
movement time) were significant while these factors did not significantly influence
movement error and their interaction. In delayed retention test, the effect of the
type of task was significant in movement time and movement error. The types of
feedback and task were significant in transfer test (in movement time) and these
factors and their interactions were not significant in movement error. The results
suggested that the types of feedback and task can be regarded as effective
independent factors in learning. The types of feedback and task were more effective
for movement time.

Abstract Colors influence mood and mental state of human beings and since man
is constantly in touch with colors, great important will be attached to the
colors. Exercise is also associated with different colors and is performed in
an environment full of different colors. Also, one of the important factors
affecting athletes' success is response to the stimulus. Considering the
importance of color and reaction time, this study examined the effect of
environmental color on simple reaction time to call in athletes. The
statistical population consisted of male students (mean age 22.2 yr) of
University of Tehran and 50 subjects were selected by the simple random
sampling method. Simple reaction time to auditory stimulus was recorded
using YB-1000 set. Analysis of variance with repeated measures and
Bonferroni post hoc test were used to analyze data. Findings showed that
the smallest standard deviation and mean of simple reaction time to sound
was related to blue environment and there was a significant difference in
the reaction time between the blue environment and all environments except
for the white (p<0.05 ). The present results showed that exposure to blue
environment can increase the speed of auditory information processing in
information processing system of human beings.

Abstract The postural control system is a complex motor system which is formed based
on an interaction of different dynamic processes and many laboratory techniques
recognize performance disorders using a wide range of neurological signs and
symptoms. The present research aimed to assess the reliability of commonly used
clinical measures of balance and to investigate the effect of age, height, weight and
BMI on performing clinical balance tests. For this purpose, 133 participants (age
range 18-59 yr) who had at least 3 sessions of sport activity per week, participated
in this research. Clinical balance tests included finger-to-nose (FTN), single leg
stance (SLS), tandem stance and time-up-and-go (TUG). The results showed that
the first performance of each three trials was slower. The relationship between
some factors and these balance tests were examined. The results revealed that FTN
and TUG especially TUG test were the most stable measure to assess sports
related concussion

Abstract Family plays an important role in physical activity behaviors in children and
adolescents although the procedure of this effect is not clear. This study was
designed to explore the family role in forming female adolescents’ physical activity
behavior. This study used a qualitative procedure and content analysis method. To
collect data, semi–structured interviews were conducted with 25 participants (16
female adolescents, 7 mothers, and 2 fathers). All interviews were recorded,
transcribed and finally analyzed by qualitative content analysis method. Three
main themes emerged as the family role in forming female adolescents' physical
activity behavior: starter (talent identification, interest arousal), strengthener
(providing, companionship and encouraging), and maintainer (try to eliminate
barriers and try to acquire the agreement of the disagreed member in the family).
This study provided a better understanding of how families influenced their girls'
physical activity behavior. Identifying the role of family can help health authorities
and physical education coaches to design more effective family–based
interventions and also to identify more areas for further research.

Abstract Learning motor tasks is one of the fundamental attributes of mankind's
experiences and is a collection of sensitive, cognitive and motor processes. Many
of complex motor behaviors are performed based on a type of order or sequence.
In the present study, the developmental differences in motor sequence learning
were examined in three groups of children (age range 7,8,10 yr) and one control
group of adults. For this purpose, the professional software of sequential stimuli,
time record and response error was designed in C++. 48 right-handed participants
(3 groups of 12 children and 1 group of 12 adults) who were healthy in their
nervous system and had no prior experience of the mentioned task participated in
this study. The intervention included 10 stages (8 stages for acquisition and 2
stages for retention). Performance was assessed by examining changes in accuracy
and response coordination. The data were analyzed with factor analysis of
variance and Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. The results showed a developmental
progression in motor sequence learning in all groups. Interestingly, different
developmental trajectories were observed in response accuracy and coordination.
There was a significant difference in response accuracy between 7,8-year-old
groups and adults and 10-year-old groups in the acquisition phase but no
significant difference was observed between adults and 10-year-old-group. For
response coordination, adults responded to the stimuli more synchronously than all
children and 10-year-old group responded more quickly than 6-year-old group. In
the retention test, for response accuracy, 10-year-old group's performance was
similar to adults and for response coordination, adults performed more  synchronously than all groups but 7-year-old group had a delay in response
coordination compared to the other groups. Overall, the differences observed in
response accuracy and coordination was consistent with the hypothesis that
accuracy may rely on cortical pathways that show their greatest maturation
between ages of 7 and 10 whereas coordination may rely on subcortical pathways
that continue to develop into young adulthood. The findings suggested that in one
hand, various aspects of motor development influence motor learning and on the
other hand during the learning of different components of a task, parameters that
are more difficult with regard to motor control ( for example response
coordination) are acquired and maintained in a longer process.

Abstract Fundamental motor skills are the bases of special motor skills. In addition to
maturation, environmental promotion can influence these skills. The aim of this
study was to investigate and compare the effect of developmental gymnastic
instructional program and Spark motor program as motor experiences on
fundamental motor skills development in children aged between 6 and 8. For this
purpose, 120 children (6–8 years old) were selected from Tehran primary schools
by cluster random sampling method. After the pretest (test of gross motor
development, second edition, Ulrich), the subjects were divided into three groups
of Spark motor program, developmental gymnastic instructional program and
control. The programs were performed for one year (36 weeks, one session per
week, 30 minutes per session). In the 37th week, the posttest was performed. Data
were analyzed by paired sample t test and one-way ANOVA. The results showed
that Spark program and gymnastic program outperformed the control group in
fundamental motor skills and locomotion (P˂0.05) and the difference between the
two experimental groups was not significant. Spark program was more effective
than gymnastic program and control group in the development of manipulation
skills. Gymnastic program was more effective than the control group in the
development of manipulation skills (P˂0.05). Thus, it can be concluded that
instructional programs can be considered as a proper motor experience for
children. These programs can be used to develop motor skills at schools through providing suitable opportunities for more training and presenting developmental
motor tasks.

Abstract The aim of the present study was to investigate and compare the effects of two
kinds of motivational and instructional self–talk on the performance of static and
dynamic balance tasks in the elderly. For this purpose, 45 old subjects aged
between 60 and 70 from Qom province participated in this study. Static balance
task (stand on one leg) and dynamic balance task (SEBT test) were instructed with
no self–talk intervention. Then, they were divided into three groups: motivational
self–talk, instructional self–talk and control. One–way analysis of variance and
Tukey post hoc test were used to analyze the data. The results showed a significant
difference among the groups. The result of Tukey post hoc test showed no
significant difference in static balance task between instructional and motivational
self–talk (P>0.05). Also, in dynamic balance task, instructional self–talk
significantly improved balance function compared to motivational self–talk
(P<0.05). Generally, self–talk as a cognitive strategy was effective in performing
balance tasks and motivational self–talk was preferred in dynamic balance tasks.

Abstract The aim of the current research was to compare motor development in 3–6-
year-old children from Ahvaz with Denver developmental screening test II. The
methodology of this research was descriptive – survey. The statistical population
consisted of children from Ahvaz and 1044 children aged between 3 and 6 were
selected from Ahvaz kindergartens by cluster random sampling method. Denver
developmental screening test II was used to collect data. Descriptive statistics were
used to compute frequencies and percentile rank to set percentile points. The
finding showed that children from Ahvaz had a delay in all percentile points (25%,
50%, 70% and 90%) in gross movements with regard to Denver test. Also, they had
a delay in all percentile points (25%, 50%, 75% and 90%) in fine movements with
regard to Denver test.