Journal of Sports and Motor Development and Learning

Abstract Relaxation is one of the important mental skills in physical education and sports
activities. Relationship between relaxation and rhythmic exercises with an
emphasis on flexibility-functional mechanisms of nervous system has received
attention in recent studies. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect
of rhythmic exercises on deepening the relaxation of national judo athletes. For
this purpose, 30 male athletes of judo national team participated in this study and
were divided into three groups: one control and two experimental groups. The
subjects practiced the training protocol for three months and the data were
recorded and then analyzed by SCL (Skin Conduct Level) index. The results
revealed no significant difference in relaxation among the groups (α=%5 and
P>0.05). In other words, relaxation exercises had a slight effect on improvement of
relaxation skill level; however, rhythmic exercises deepened relaxation to some
extent. Results showed that rhythmic movements reduced stress through influencing
relaxation deepening and subjects with more relaxation were more successful in
their optimal movements.

Abstract The aim of this study was to determine motivational priorities of participation
in wrestling among wrestlers (Greco-Roman and freestyle) in Kermanshah city.
The statistical population consisted of 4612 wrestlers of Kermanshah city. 242
wrestlers in different age groups (99 adolescents, 56 juniors and 87 seniors) were
selected as a sample with random sampling method. Personal information
questionnaire and Gale participation motivation questionnaire were used to collect
data and at the end of the training session, the questionnaires were completed.
Friedman test, one-way analysis of variance and SPSS software version 13 were
used to analyze data at significance level of 0.05. Gaining success (7.44 ranking),
energy depletion (6.15 ranking) and meeting friends (4.57 ranking) were the first
priorities to participate in wrestling. There was no significant difference in
motivation of participation among different age groups (P>0.05). Results indicated
that gaining success was the main factor of participation in wrestling in
Kermanshah and there was no significant difference in the priority of motivational
factors among different age groups and those groups with various wrestling
participation records.

Abstract Success is satisfactory for any athlete. However, some athletes will face anxiety
in novel circumstances and fear of future will prevent them from improving. Fear
of failure is accompanied with stress and adaptation to stress is the most important
issue for an effective decision. The aim of this study was to examine validity and
reliability of performance failure appraisal inventory (PFAI). For this purpose,
203 athlete university students (93 women and 110 men who aged between 19 and
23 with the physical activity record 7.70±4.4) completed PFAI. Confirmatory
factor analysis was used to examine construct validity, Cronbach’s alpha
coefficient to examine internal consistency of the items of each factor, and Pearson
correlation coefficient to examine inter-factor reliability. Results of confirmatory
factor analysis confirmed five factors in PFAI: fear of devaluing one’s self-esteem
(4 items), fear of an uncertain future (4 items), fear of upsetting important
individuals (5 items), fear of experiencing shame and embarrassment (7 items) and
fear of losing important individuals’ interest (5 items). Correlation analysis
showed an acceptable correlation between all of these factors and fear of failure.
The results of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient showed acceptable internal consistency
of items of each subscale.

Abstract The aim of this research was to examine the effect of a training intervention
program on fall-related motor performance in the male elderly with no regular
physical activities. For this purpose, 39 out of 130 participants in screen test were
selected and assigned to training group (n=20) and control group (n=19). Subjects
aged between 60 and 70 in experimental were 73.68% and in the control group
43.75% and subjects aged 71 and above were 26.31% in the experimental group
and 56.25% in the control group. Experimental group participated in a 10-week
intervention program (3 sessions per week and 90 minutes per session). Data were
collected with 30-s seat, sit and reach, one-leg standing (eyes open and closed), up
and go, 10-meter walk and 10-meter obstacle walk tests. In this semi-experimental
research, Kolmogorov-Smirnov and independent t test was used to analyse motor
performance measures. Results indicated a significant improve in mean scores of
lower extremity strength (27.37 rep), flexibility (29.28 cm), static balance with eyes
open (60.94 sec) and closed (19.36 sec), agility and dynamic balance (4.10 sec),
10-meter walk (3.35 sec) and 10-meter obstacle walk (4.03 sec) in the experimental
group after the 10-week training intervention program (P<0.05). The findings
confirmed the effect of training interventions (especially strength training) on
improving fall-related motor performance and preventing probable falls in the
elderly.

Abstract Skillful performance in soccer requires not only sound techniques but also quick
and accurate decision making. These decisions are usually made in various
intensities of practice and performance. The main aim of this study was to
investigate the effect of different levels of arousal and training intensity on decision
making (speed and accuracy) of expert female soccer players. For this purpose, 16
expert female soccer players (mean age 22.4±3.8 yr) with 8 or more years of
competitive experience were voluntarily selected from Tehran women's premier
league. Soccer related photographs on a computer monitor were used to evaluate
the decision making task; participants had to decide which action they would
undertake (shoot, pass, dribble). Three different levels of arousal (low: with no
spectators, medium: with silent spectators and high: with cheering spectators) in
three different levels of intensity (resting, 40% of HRmax, 80% of HRmax) were
designed. To measure the accuracy and speed of decision making, parametric
method of MANOVA, 3(training intensity levels) in 3 (arousal levels), was used. To
totally compare the groups, one-way analysis of variance, ANOVA with repeated
measures and Tukey post hoc test were used at α=95%. The results showed no
significant difference in the speed of decision making among different arousal
levels (P>0.05) while a significant difference was observed in the accuracy of
decision making among different arousal levels (P˂0.05). The speed of decision
making improved in the low and medium arousal levels through an increase in
training intensity while no significant difference was observed in the speed of
decision making in high arousal level among different intensity levels (P>0.05).
Furthermore, the accuracy of decision making showed no significant difference in
low and high arousal levels among different intensity levels (P>0.05). The
accuracy of decision making improved in low arousal level through an increase in
training intensity. These finding showed that training intensity and arousal
separately influenced each decision making component.

Abstract The current study aimed to examine the effect of a period of regular exercise on
the aggression of educable mentally retarded students aged between 9 and 15 in
Lordegan city. For this purpose, 28 students were selected randomly and divided
into two groups: 7 boys and 7 girls in experimental group and 7 boys and 7 girls in
control group. Ghezelseflu et al. (1387) aggression scale was used as a pretest for
both groups. A period of exercise program as an intervention program was run for
2 months, every week, 3 sessions (45 minutes) per week on the experimental group.
After intervention program, aggression scale was run again. The data were
analyzed by covariance using spss software. The results showed that a significant
difference between control and experimental groups' performance (P<0.001) in
aggression which showed that a period of exercise program reduced the
aggression and its subscales in the experimental group. It was concluded that
regular exercise program reduced the aggression of educable mentally retarded
students.

Abstract Contextual interference is one of the instructional methods for several skills.
The aim of this research was to determine the effects of interference before
performance and interference during performance on the acquisition and retention
of generalized motor program and parameter in basketball skills with an emphasis
on the examination of contextual interference hypotheses and self-regulation
learning theories. In interference before performance, self-practice schedules is
generated (self-regulation effect) and interference during performance,
experimenter-imposed practice schedule is generated (contextual interference
effect). For this purpose, 120 students of Yazd University (age range 19-21 years
old) who had no prior experience in basketball skills volunteered to participate in
this study. Participants were randomly assigned to 10 groups (each 12 subjects); 5
groups practiced with generalized motor program (dribble, chest pass and free
throw skills) and 5 groups practiced with parameter (free throw from different
distances) in practice schedules (blocked, random, serial, self-regulated and yoked
to self-regulated). To collect data, throw and pass test (AAHPERD basketball test)
and dribble test (Johnson basketball test) were used. After the pretest, in the
acquisition phase, subjects took part in 5 training sessions including 45 trails per
session (15 trails each block) for 5 days. After 48 hours, they participated in
retention test with 15 trails (5 trials each task). The data were analyzed by one-way 
ANOVA, factor analysis of variance with repeated measures, LSD and Duncan
post hoc tests. Results showed a significant difference among practice schedules in
acquisition and retention phases of generalized motor program, that is, the effect of
contextual interference was observed in this program (p<0.05). Also, there was a
significant difference among the schedules in acquisition and retention phases of
parameter, that is, controlling the design of practice has a positive effect on
learning (p<0.05). Thus, the results suggested that during learning process, the
effect of interference before performance was more important than during
performance.

Abstract The aim of this study was to compare the performance of analogy (implicit),
explicit and discovery learning in the retention and transfer of a topspin shot under
psychological pressure. For this purpose, 36 volunteer high school students were
randomly allocated to three treatment conditions: explicit, analogy, and discovery
learning. After performing 300 trials in the acquisition phase, an immediate
retention and transfer test under psychological pressure was performed. Before the
acquisition phase, the MSRSQ, after the test, a procedural protocol and CSAI-2Q
in two phases were completed by the participants. Results showed no significant
difference among the groups in the immediate retention test. In the transfer test,
analogy learning group outperformed the two other groups. In addition, contrary
to the analogy group, the two other groups experienced a performance breakdown
in the transfer test when compared with the immediate retention test. There was a
significant correlation (positive and negative respectively) between their MSRSQ
score and number of verbal rules and their performance under pressure. It appears
that the dominant process in discovery learning is explicit process. In addition,
learning under explicit and implicit conditions for an extended period of time
appears to be quantitatively similar but qualitatively dissimilar; therefore, using
analogy learning, performers benefit from advantages of resistance against
performance breakdown under psychological pressure.